History is a study of our past and coins contributed a great deal to it. It may be pertinent to point out that James Prinsep deciphered our ancient Indian scripts namely Brahmi and Kharosthi in 1830’s on the basis of study of Indo-Greek coins having bilingual legends. Egyptian hieroglyphic script was deciphered in the same way by Young and Champollion on the basis of study of Rosetta stone having bilingual Egyptian and Greek alphabets. The study of ancient Indian coins brought to light the names of many unknown kings about whose existence there was no inscriptional or literary evidence. For example the recent discovery of Kotalingala coins in the Karimnagar district of Andhra Pradesh revealed the coins of kings Gobada, Narana, Kamvayasa, Sirivayasa and Samagopa besides the coins of early Satavahana rulers. These kings ruled part of Telengana in post Mauryan period and they preceded Satavahanas. 38 kings and two queens of Indo-Greeks who ruled northwestern India after the departure of Alexander came to be known through their coins and only two of these were mentioned in inscriptions and 7 others through literary sources. It is true of many such rulers in different parts of our country who came to be known through their coins. The coins helped in corroborating the information provided in the Puranas. The lists of Andhra kings are given in Puranas like Vayu, Visnu, Brahmanda, Bhagavata and Matsya. Coins of 20 odd kings of Satavahana dynasty have been found supporting these Puranas. But information provided by coins seems to be more accurate than Puranas. For example the name of the first king of this dynasty is mentioned variously as Chismaka (Brahmanda), Sindhuka (Vayu), Sipraka (Visnu), Sisuka (Matsya) and Vrsalobali (Bhagavata) but coins name him as Chimuka which must be correct since they were issued during his rule while puranas were written centuries later and hence many inaccuracies crept into them. Nanaghat inscription was much nearer the truth, which named Chimuka as Simuka and this, was incised few decades later by Naganika. The coins of some kings of this dynasty were found who were not listed in the puranas namely Satavahana, Sata, Rudra, Karna and Kumba. Hence coins help in reconstructing our ancient Indian history much more accurately than what is possible from other sources.

Coins also help in knowing the religious leanings of the king, personal traits of the rulers besides the trade and economic conditions of those times. Later Satavahana kings issued ship type of coins and the find of Roman coins along with those of these rulers support the maritime trade with west in those times. Debased gold coins of later Gupta rulers suggest chaotic economic conditions compared to the days of earlier kings of this dynasty as well as those of Kushana kings who preceded them. Some coins of Samudragupta had gold content of even 100% and it got debased to 54% in the coins of Kumaragupta II. Venkatapati Raya II of Vijayanagar issued coins with ‘namam ‘symbol making obvious his leanings towards vaishnavite faith. One Delhi sultan Ghiasuddin Tughlaq called himself as second Alexander and his son; Muhammad Bin Tughlaq killed him to become a king and issued coins in the name of his dead father calling him a martyr. Qutbuddin Khalji called himself the ‘supreme head of Islam and lord of heaven and earth’. The epithets and couplets of some of these Muslim rulers help in finding out the personal traits of those kings.

The metal of the coin help in finding out the alloys available in those times and portrait coins as well as symbols on them give us an idea about the art of that age and calligraphy.The Andhra coins are unique among Indian coins in two important aspects. The Andhra rulers were the first to issue coins made exclusively of lead since the earliest times. It appears that Andhra rulers had been using lead for making coins for a long time. It started with the use of lead for making uninscribed and inscribed coins during presatavahana and post Mauryan era and continued till the time of Vishnukundins during the 4th^-5th century AD. Subsequent to the rule of Vishnukundins, lead was not used for making coins in Andhra Desa. But recently Pallava lead coins were reported and these rulers ruled part of southern Andhra. Lead is a very soft bluish-Grey metal, and in its normal state tarnishes rapidly to a dark Grey color and has very poor wear resistance. It was only in the Andhra region that coins came to be issued by high officials of the ruling dynasty, such as Senapathi, Talavara, Maharathi and Mahagramika, which raises an important question whether the authority to issue coins was decentralized or delegated in those times.

Brief Andhra history

Andhra or Deccan history is arbitrarily divided into three periods namely ancient (upto circa 1295 AD), medieval (1295-1724 AD) and modern (1724 AD) onwards. There were Hindu kingdoms in ancient times and in medieval period Delhi sultans made onslaughts into the Deccan and Muslim kingdoms established. Modern starts with the beginning of Asaf Jahi rule.

C.2000 BC-1000BC: No political territories.

C.500 BC: No rulers. Upper Neolithic and megalithic people. Few urban centers. Early farming along with cattle breeding societies.

Third century BC: Part of Asokan Empire.

Second century BC: Improved farming and rise of landlords. Spread of Buddhist centers at: Dhanakada (Amaravathi), Battiprolu, Ghantasala, Sanghavaram and Salihundem.Rise of political and urban centers at Kotalingala, Rayapatnam, Pedda bunkur, Kondapur, Veechavada (Vijayawada) and Pathala Lanka seaport.

First century AD: Satavahana empire and upper coastal under Meghavahanas of Kalinga.

Second century AD. Andhra desa was completely under Satavahanas. Rise of Mahayana Buddhism. Great Buddhist Acharya Nagarjuna Arya Deva flourished. Dhanakada became a famous Buddhist center besides Ghantasala, Battiprolu, Bavikonda and Dhulikatta.

Third century AD: fall of Satavahana empire around C.230AD. Nagas, Ikshvakus, Ananda gotras, Brihatphalayanas ruled till the end of the century. Buddhism became a popular faith with numerous stupas at Nagajunakonda, Goli, Dhanakada, Battiprolu, Ghantasala, Gudivada, Sanghavaram, Dhulikatta, Nelakondapalli, Panigiri and Guntupalli.

Fourth century AD: Rise of Pallavas and Salankayanas. Samudra Gupta’s invasion sometime in 350-360 AD. All minor chiefs in Kalinga replaced with Gupta followers. Rise of Vishnukundins. Popularity of temple and celebration of Hindu festivals.

Fifth and Sixth centuries AD: Vishnukundins in the north. Pallavas in the south and rise of Eastern Gangas in Kalinga.

Seventh century AD: Telengana and Rayalaseema under Badami Chalukyas. Eastern Gangas in Kalinga and Eastern Chalukyas in Vengi. Pallavas in the south.

Eighth and Ninth centuries AD: Podana Chalukyas in northern Telengana, Rashtrakutas in the center, Eastern Chalukyas and Eastern Gangas in the north coastal region. Renadu Cholas, Nolambas, Western Gangas, Pallavas and Bana chiefs in southern Rayalaseema.

Tenth century AD: Vemulavada Chalukyas ruled northern Telengana. Eastern Chalukyas and Eastern Gangas ruled coastal region. Rashtrakutas ruled southern Telengana and southern Andhra ruled by Vaidumu and Bana chiefs.

Eleventh and twelfth centuries AD: Western Chalukyas ruled Telengana and Rayalaseema upto 1156 AD from Kalyana. They were overthrown by Kalachuri Bijjala in 1156 AD.

Thirteenth century: Kakatiyas of Orugallu ruled Andhradesa as a dominant power (1200-1323AD.). Eastern Gangas ruled Kalinga from 500-1433AD.

Fourteenth century: fall of Kakatiyas in 1323 AD. Expulsion of Muslims by 1325 AD. Recovery of Warangal by Musunuri Kapaya in 1327 AD. Founding of Reddy kingdom in 1325 AD. Founding of Vijayanagara kingdom by Harihara and Bukka in 1335 AD. Founding of Bahmani rule at Devagiri in 1347AD.Velama kingdom at Rachakonda in 1368 AD.

Fifteenth century: Three powerful kingdoms formed: Vijayanagara in the south, Bahmanis in central Deccan and Gajapathi’s in Kalinga. Fall of Eastern Gangas and rise of Kapileshwara Gajapathi. Kingdom of Velama Nayaks around Krishna river.

Sixteenth century: fall of Bahmani’s and rise of Qutub Shahi’s of Golconda in 1496 AD. Accession of Krishna Devaraya in 1509 AD. Capture of coastal Andhra from Gajapathis in 1513-1518 AD. Ibrahim Qutub Shah (1550-1580AD). Battle of Rakkasa-Tangadi in 1565 AD. The whole of Andhra country formed Qutub Shahi kingdom.

Seventeenth century: fall of Golconda to Mughals in 1687 AD.

Eighteenth century AD: Rise of Asaf Jahis in 1724AD.Asaf Jahi kingdom in Andhra. Asaf Jah I died in 1748 AD and his third son Salabat became Nizam with the help of French governor Bussi. Coastal districts of Srikakulam, Rajamundry, Eluru and Mustafanagar (Kondapalli) surrendered in 1754 AD to French.

Nineteenth century: By 1800 AD the Circar districts and Rayalaseema including Nellore came under the direct rule of British. Telengana, Marathwada and a part of Karnataka formed the Nizam dominion. Nizam was a protégé of British. Bobbili, Vijayanagaram, Pithapuram, Venkatagiri etc were zamindars.

Twentieth century: Freedom struggle under Mahatma Gandhi’s leadership. Independence for India on 15th August 1947.Police action against the Nizam in September 1948AD.Separate Andhra state on 1st October 1953AD with Kurnool as Capital. Formation of Andhra Pradesh on 1st November 1956 AD with Hyderabad as capital.

References: Andhra history

1. Altekar, A.S. The Rashtrakutas and their times, Oriental series No.36, Oriental Book Agency, Poona, 1934.

2. AppaRao, V. Reddy Sanchika, A.P.Archaeological series.67, Govt. Of A.P., Hyderabad, 1991.

3. Bhandarkar, R.G. Early history of the Dekkan down to the Mahomedan conquest, 2nd Ed., Asian educational services, New Delhi, 1985.

4. Gopalachari, K. Early history of Andhra country, Madras University historical series No.16, Madras, 1976.

5. Gribble, J.D.B. History of the Deccan, vol. II Luzac & Company London, I 1896.

6. Murari, K. The calukyas of Kalyani (From circa 973-1200AD), Concept Publishing Company, Delhi, 1977.

7. Parabrahma Sastry, P.V. The Kakatiyas of Warangal, Govt. of A.P., Hyderabad, 1978.

8. Prasad, R. The Asaf Jahs of Hyderabad, their rise and decline, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.Ltd, New Delhi, 1984.

9. Rama Sharma, M.H. The history of the Vijayanagar empire, vol.: Beginnings and expansion, vol.: Decline and disappearance, Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1978 & 1980.

10. Ramesh, K.V. Chalukyas of Vatapi, Agam Kala Prakashan, Delhi, 1984.

11. Rao, B.V. History of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, A.P.Sahitya Academy, Hyderabad, 1973.

12. Rao, N.M. Kalinga under the Eastern Gangas, B.R.Publishing Corporation, Delhi, 1991.

13. Rao, M.R. Glimpses of Dakkan history, Orient Longmans Limited, Madras, 1951.

14. Sherwani, H.K. and Joshi, P.M. History of medieval Deccan, Govt A.P., 1973.

15. Sherwani, H.K. The Bahmanis of the Deccan, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, Delhi, 1985.

16. Sherwani, H.K. History of the Qutb Shahi dynasty. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt.Ltd, New Delhi, 1974.

17. Venkataramanayya, N. The eastern Calukyas of Vengi, Vedam Venkataraya Sastry & Bros., Madras, 1950.

18. Yazdani, G. The early history of the Deccan, Govt. A.P., Oxford University press, parts I &II, London, 1960.Oriental books reprint corporation, New Delhi, 1971.

Books, monographs and chapters

Altekar, A.S. The coinage of the Deccan. In: Early history of the Deccan, Ed.G.Yazdani, and London, p.785-806, 1960.
Bhandarkar, D.R lectures on ancient Indian numismatics. The Carmichael lectures 1921.Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, 1990.
Chattopadyay, B: Coins and currency systems in South India. Munshiram Manohar Lal, New Delhi, 1977.
Cunningham, A., Coins of ancient India, Indological book house, Varanasi, 1971.Originally published in 1886.
Desikachari, T. South Indian coins, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, 1984, originally published in 1933.
Dutta, M. Satavahana coinage. Harman Publishing House, New Delhi, 1990
Elliot, W., Coins of southern India. Prithvi prakashan, Varanasi, 1970. Originally published in 1884.
Gupta, PL Catalogue of Punch marked coins of the Andhra Pradesh government museum, Hyderabad, 1960.
Gupta, PL, The Amaravati hoard of silver punch marked coins. Hyderabad, 1963.
Gupta, PL. Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad, 1965.
Gupta, PL Coinage of the Deccan. In: History of medieval Deccan, Eds. H.K.Sherwani & P.M.Joshi, 1974.
Gupta, PL, Coins, National Book Trust, New Delhi, Fourth edition, 1996
Khan, A.W. Qutb Shahi coins in the Andhra Pradesh Government museum, Hyderabad, 1961
Khan, A.W. Bahmani coins in the Andhra Pradesh Government museum, Hyderabad, 1964.
Mirashi, V.V., Studies in Indology, Vol.III. Nagpur university, Nagpur, 1972.
Mitchiner, M., The coinage and history of south India. Part one: Karnataka and Andhra, Hawkins Publishing, London, 1998.
Narain, AK and Gopal, L. The chronology of the punch marked coins, Varanasi, 1966.
Prinsep, J., Essays in Indian antiquities. Historic, numismatic and paleographic. Ed.: E.Thomas. Indological book house, Delhi, 1971.Originally published in 1858.
Ramesan, N. A catalogue of the Vijayanagar coins of the Andhra Pradesh museum, Archaeological series No.4, Govt AP, Hyderabad, 1979.
Rao, M.R. List of Published Satavahana coins. Numismatic Society of India Monograph No.6, Varanasi, 1958.
Rao, M.R. Select Satavahana coins in the Government museum, Madras, 1959.
Rao.M.R. Satavahana coins in A.P.Govt museum, Hyderabad, 1961.
Rao, M.R. Vishnukundin coins in the Andhra Pradesh Government museum, Hyderabad, 1963.
Rao, M.R. Eastern Chalukyan coins in the Andhra Pradesh Government museum, Hyderabad, 1963.
Rapson, E.J., The coinage of ancient and medieval India, Malter-westerfield Publishing Co., 1969,Originally published in 1897.
Rapson, E.J., The catalogue of coins of Andhra dynasty, western Kshatrapas, The Trikutaka dynasty and Bodhi dynasty. The Oriental books reprint corporation, Delhi, 1975.Originally published in 1908
Reddy.D.R. & Reddy, P.S. Copper coins of the Bahmanis, Hyderabad Numismatic Society, Hyderabad, 1983.
Reddy, D.R.& Reddy, P.S. Silver coins of the Bahmanis, Hyderabad Numismatic Society, Hyderabad, 1983.
Reddy.D.R. & Reddy, P.S. Coins of the Satraps of the Satavahana era, Hyderabad Numismatic Society, Hyderabad, 1983.
Reddy, DR. & Reddy, P.S. Uninscribed coins of Andhra, Hyderabad Numismatic Society, Hyderabad, 1984.
Reddy, D.R.& Reddy, P.S. Kotalingala coinage of Satavahanas and other local rulers. A profile, Hyderabad Numismatic Society, Hyderabad, 1987.
Reddy, DR., Deme, M.R.& Deme.S.R. Andhra coins through the ages, Hyderabad, 1997.
Sahni, B.: The technique of casting coins in ancient India. Bharatiya Publishing house, New Delhi, 1973,Originally published in 1945.
Sarma, I.K. Coinage of the Satavahana empire, Agam Kala Prakashan, Delhi, 1980.
Sastry, V.V.K. Roman gold coins. Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh, A.P. Museum series No.21, Govt. A.P., Hyderabad, Hyderabad, 1992.
Shastri, A, M. Coinage of Satavahanas and coins from excavations, Nagpur University, 1972.
Sastry, P.V.P. Kakatiya coins and measures, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad, 1975.
Smith, VA, Coins of ancient India. Catalogue of coins in the Indian museum Calcutta.Vol.1.Indological book house, Varanasi, 1972.Originally published in 1906.
Sircar, D.C. Early Indian numismatic and epigraphical studies. Indian museum, Calcutta, 1977.
Subramanyam, R. A catalogue of the Ikshvaku coins in the Andhra Pradesh Government museum, Hyderabad, 1962.
Vanaja, R. Indian coinage, National museum, New Delhi, 1983.
Vidya Prakash. Coinage of south India, an introductory survey. Numismatic notes and monographs No.14, Varanasi, 1968.
Thaplyal, K.K. Studies in ancient Indian seals, Akhila Bharatiya Sanskrit Parishad, Lucknow, 1972

References: Punch marked coins

Punch marked is the earliest Indian coins and they derived their name from the method of their manufacture. These coins are of two types - Imperial and local. Imperial coins of the Magadhan and Mauryan Empire were in circulation throughout the country, while local ones issued by regional rulers circulated only in their respective regions. Each of these types had distinctive features. Imperial coins had five symbols whereas local ones had four or less symbols. Imperial had uniform weights of 32 rattis or 57 grains whereas weights of local coins varied greatly. The local coins preceded the imperial coins. The imperial coins are divided into six types based on their fabric and are attributed to different kings of Magadha, Maurya and subsequent dynasties. There is enormous amount of literature on punch marked coins. References of the coins of the local type found in Andhra besides the monographs of hoards of punch marked coins found in Andhra are listed.

Punch marked coins have been found in hoards in Karimnagar, Nasthulapur, Amaravathi, Weepangandla and Singavaram and also during excavations at kondapur, Veerapuram, Vaddamanu, Amaravathi, Kotalingala etc. Sreenivas and Gupta have described imperial type of these coins found in Andhra. Local types found in Singavaram of Krishna district have been published by Aravamuthan. Punch marked coins of the Imperial type has been found in adjacent Asmaka territory of Gulbarga, Maski and Raichur and Gupta has described them along with other coins in the Museum at Hyderabad. Patil has described local type of punch marked coins of Asmaka and these are similar to those from Andhra. There are four symbols on these coins, out of which one symbol is struck twice. These coins of silver of various shapes weighed between 20 to 30 grains. The usual sun and six armed symbols of the imperial type are not found on these local coins. Elephant is found in all these local coins of punch marked type from Andhra. Tree and bull are the other common symbols.9 out of the 91 varieties of imperial punch marked coins of Hyderabad museum and 48 of 235 varieties from Amaravati are exclusively known from these hoard. But they are too few in numbers to say whether they belong to this region and future discoveries might help.

Agarwal, B., and Rai, S., Indian punch marked coins.1994.
Allan, J., Catalogue of the coins of ancient Indian.1936.Oriental books reprint corporation, New Delhi, 1975.
Aravamuthan, T.G.A new type of punch marked coins. Trans. Intern. Num. Cong.p.393, 1936.
Atkins, K.J.Punchmarked-Maghada-Maurya punch marked silver coinage, ONS newsletter No.145, and 1995.
Cribb, J., Punch -marked coins-approaches to new research. ONS news letter. No.146, p.7-8, 1995.
Dani, A.H., Indian punch marked coins-a new approach. JASP. 1,1956. P.100.
Gupta, PL Three punch-marked coins from Hyderabad.JNSI.XVI, p.51, 1954.
Gupta, P.L. Nasthulapur hoard of silver Roman and punch marked coins.JNSI.XIX, p.1, and 1957.
Gupta, PL On the chronology of the silver punch-marked coins. JNSI. XXI.p.1, 1959.
Gupta, PL, An interesting treasure-trove from Weepangandla (Mahboobnagar). JNSI. XXXIV.p.2, 1972.
Gupta, PL and Hardaker, T.R., Ancient Indian silver punch marked coins of the Maghada-Maurya karsapana series, Indian Institute of research in numismatic studies, Anjaneri, 1985.
Hardaker, T. Punchmarked –forgeries, ONS newsletter No.111, 1988.
Hirano, S. Punchmarked-two forgeries from India, ONS newsletter No.159, 1995.
Kesava, K.S.B., Discovery of punch marked coins in Nellore, Andhra Pradesh. SSIC. V., p.37-44, 1995.
Kosambi, DD, Chronological order of punch marked coins. JBBRAS. P.24, 1948-49.
Kosambi, DD, Punch marked coins of the Amaravati hoard. Chronology of punch marked coins, Varanasi, p.51, 1966.
Lahiri, A.N. Numismatography of punch-marked coins. JNSI.XLIX.p.155-162, 1987.
Lahiri, A.N. The revolution brought about by silver punch-marked coins in the sphere of trade trasactions, A paper presented at the3rd international colloquium at Nasik, IIRNS, and Jan 8-11,1991.
Mangalam, S.J. Punch marked coins of Asmaka Janapada, Nidhi, XVII.p.1-21, 1992.
Mangalam, S.J. Local silver punch-marked coins from Maharashtra, JNSI, and LV., p.12-18, 1993
Narain, AK, Notes on the chronology of punch marked coins. JNSI. XIX, p.19, 1957.
Patil, S., Punch marked coins of Asmaka janapada.N.D.XV.p.5-9, 1991.
Prasad, B, Prakash, B. and Ahmad, N. Metallurgical study of the silver punch marked coins. JNSI, LVII, p.135-144, 1995.
Prasad, D., Classification and significance of the symbols on the silver punch marked coins of ancient India, NS, XLV, p.317, and 1934.
Radhakrishnan, PV, Chronology silver punch marked coins in south India. SSIC. VIII.p.27-34, 1998.
Rajgor, D. Minting techniques of punch marked coins of India. JNSI. LVIII, p.115-121, 1996.
Rajgor, D., Punch marked coins of early historic India. Reesha books international, California, 2001.
Ray, S.C., A note on the chronology of punch marked coin hoards, JNSI, XXI, p.120, 1959
Sarma, I.K. Important numismatic finds from Duvvuru and Alluru, District Nellore (AP). JAINS.III, p.12-15, 1980.
Sreenivas, T. Punch-marked coins in the cabinet of the Hyderabad museum. RADN, p.39, 1928-9.
Spooner, D.B., A new find of punch marked coins. ASR.p.150, 1905-6
Theobald, W., Notes on symbols found on punch marked coins. JASB. 49,p.181-268.
Walsh, E.H.C., Punch marked silver coins, their standard of weight, age and minting. JRAS, p.293, 1937. Also JNSI.II, p.15, 1940.

References: Uninscribed coins.

In the evolution of the ancient Indian coinage the earliest were the punch marked coins, which were succeeded first by uninscribed cast coins and later by inscribed coins. We made a detailed study of these coins found in Andhra in our book Uninscribed coins of Andhra. The symbols found on these coins, technique of their manufacture, metals that were used for making them and also chemical analysis of these coins was described. Local rulers issued these coins in the presatavahana era and enormous variety of these coins merit detailed study. Veerapuram excavations prove that these coins were in circulation for much longer period and may have been used along with other inscribed coins upto 400 AD.

1. Ahmad, N. and Akhtar, MN The elephant/hill type uninscribed copper cast coins-a study with reference to their composition. JNSI.LVIII.p.122-134, 1996

2. Allan, J., Catalogue of coins in ancient India. Oriental books reprint corporations, New Delhi.1936.

3. Altekar, Some interesting uninscribed coins, JNSI.IV, I, p.29, 1942.

4. Bhargava, R.R. Uninscribed coins from Thathari (M.P.), N.D., XVII.p.11-14, 1993.

5. Cunningham, A., Coins of ancient India. Indological book house. Varanasi, p.53-102. 1971

6. Elliot, W., Coins of southern India. Indological book house. Varanasi, 1970.

7. Ghosh, A., Presidential address to the Numismatic society of India. -Gauhati, 1965.Sixty years of numismatic society of India. Varanasi, p.471.1973

8. Kamalakar, G. and Veerender, M., Coins from Veerapuram excavations, Numismatic bulletin No.3 Birla archaeological and cultural research institute, Hyderabad, p.17, 1991.

9. Lahiri, A.N., Archaic coins of Northern India.JNSI.XXXV.p.1, 1973.

10. Maheshwari, K.K., Some interesting coins from Andhra Pradesh, N. D.I.p.1.1977.

11. Maheshwari, K.K., New varieties of uninscribed cast coins of the Deccan.N.D.VI.p.2.1982.

12. Maheshwari, K.K., Some interesting coins from A.P.N.D. VI, p.10, and 1982.

13. Prinsep, J., Essays in Indian antiquities.Vol.I.Ed. E.Thomas. 14.Rapson, E.J., Indian coins. Indological book house. Varanasi, 1969. p.10-15.

14. Ray, S.C., The uninscribed cast coins. Their distribution, age and other issues. JNSI.XXIX.II.p.1.1967.

15. Reddy, DR, Reddy, P.S., Uninscribed coins of Andhra. The numismatic society of Hyderabad, 1984.

16. Reddy, DR, Reddy, P.S., Some observations on uninscribed coins of Andhra. In: Indological studies. Ed. D.Handa. Caxton publications Delhi, p.155-160, 1987.

17. Roy Choudhury, C., A catalogue of early Indian coins in Asutosh museum, Part.I. University of Calcutta.1962.

18. Sastry, T.V.G., Kasturi Bai, M., Rao, J.V.P., Veerapuram-Type site for cultural study in Krishna valley, Birla archaeological and cultural research institute. Hyderabad, p.76-80, 1984.

19. Siddiqui, A.H., Uninscribed cast coins from Deccan. N.D. IV. P.9-10, 1980.

20. Singh, P. The stratighraphic position of uninscribed cast coins. Seminar papers on the local coins of Northern India, C.30 BC to 300 AD. Varanasi, p.105, and 1968.

21. Smith, V., A., Coins of ancient India.vol.I. Indological book house, Varanasi.1972.p.143-207.

22. Thomas, E., The earliest Indian coinage.N.Chr.IV.p.263-288, 1864.

23. Whitehead, R.B., The premohammedan coinage of Northwestern India. Amer. Num. Notes and monograph No.13, 1922.

References: Early inscribed coins of local rulers

First inscribed coin to be issued in Andhra is that of King Gobada to be followed by coins of other local rulers. The post-Mauryan and pre-Satavahana history of the Deccan, which lasted for about two hundred years, is shrouded in darkness. Inscriptions and coins of the period reveal certain facts. After the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire some petty kings or local chieftains seemed to have assumed power in this region. Bhattiprolu and Vaddamanu inscriptions and coins of the latter on coastal Andhra belonging to the second century BC mention king’s Kuberaka, Somaka, and Sebaka. Names of king such as Gobada, Narana, Kamvayasa, Sirivayasa and Samagopa have come to light from the coins found at Kotalingala in Telengana region. Stray coins of this period with names such as Siri Makasa, Siva Maka Siri, Kamarasa, Siri Masa, Kamasa, Raya Hayasanaka etc have been published by us. Similarly we have published many varieties of uninscribed coins belonging to this period. They cannot be ascribed to any ruler or dynasty mentioned in any of the ancient puranas. A possible reason is that there were many small rulers scattered over this area that had the authority to issue coins. Even when a powerful dynasty like Satavahana ruled, there were smaller local rulers who issued coins. This seems to have been a common practice in the early period as is evident from Megasthenese’s account of' 'Thirty walled Towns’ in the Asmaka – Mulaka territories in the sixth century BC.

1. Gupta, P.L. Kotalingala find of Post-Mauryan coins, N.D., II, II, p.24-33, 1978.

2. Ramachandra Murthy, NS Kotilingala: An early historical site, AAHA.p.33-35, 1983.

3. Reddy, DR, Early coins from Kotalingala. N.D.IX, II, p.41-45, 1985.

4. Reddy, DR & Reddy, P.S., Kotalingala coinage of the Satavahanas and other local rulers, Numismatic Society of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, 1987.

5. Reddy, DR and Reddy, P.S., Some rare presatavahana coins of the Deccan. Numismatic studies.Vol.2. Ed.D.Handa, 1992.

6. Sastry, P.V.P. Unknown coins of Satavahanas and their predecessors, N.D. II, p.10, 1978.

7. Sastry, P.V.P. Some more coins from Kotalingala, N.D.III, p.17-28, 1979.

8. Siddiqui, A.H., Sandhya, K. and Bhanu Kumari, Ch. Two new copper coins of Samigopa, SSIC, IV.p.89-92, 1994.

9. Siddiqui, A.H. and Vijayalakshmi, K.A potin coin of Sri Puka.SSIC.IV, p.93-94, 1994.

10. Siddiqui, A.H. and Khan, M.F.A. A new type copper coin of Kama Sri, SSIC, and VII, p.39-40, 1997.

References: Satavahana coins

One of the most illustrious dynasties of India, the Satavahanas ruled over the Deccan after the Mauryas, Sungas and Kanvas. They left behind such great works of art as the famous Sanchi and Amaravathi stupas and rock cut temples in the western India, which testified, to their love of art. However, they have been the subjects of a lively controversy, which has not yet abated. Several questions have been raised concerning them. Firstly who were the Satavahanas? But nowhere in their records were the Satavahanas called Andhras. In fact, contemporary inscriptions like Hathigumpa referred to them as Satavahanas but not Andhras. Secondly when did their rule begin? Was it 230 BC or in the third quarter of first century BC. However there is agreement as to when their rule ended which was around 230AD. Thirdly how long their rule lasted, was it 456 to 460 years or for a much shorter period. Lastly where did their rule began? Was it coastal Andhra, Vidarbha, Western Maharashtra or in Telengana region. Kotalingala coin find in 1970’s has come to be considered as the single most important event in the history of Deccan numismatics. The coins unearthed here answered some of the questions raised above.

Among the Puranic list of Satavahana kings the Matsya purana tops the list with names of 30 kings with their years of rule:

1.Sisuka (Chimuka)-23 years,2.Krishna-18 yrs, 3.Sri Mallakarni (Satakarni I)-10yrs, 4.Purnotsanga-18 yrs, 5.Skandhastambhi-18 yrs, 6.Satakarni (Satakarni II)-56 yrs, 7.Lambodara-18 yrs, 8.Apilaka-12 yrs, Meghasvati-18yrs, 0.Svati-18 yrs,11.Skanasvati 7 rs,12.Mrgendra Svatikarna-3yrs,13.Kuntala Svatikarna 8 yrs, 14.Svatikarna-1 yr, 15.Pulumavi (Pulumavi I)-36 yrs, 16.Riktavarna-25 yrs,17.Hala-5 yrs, 18.Mandalaka-5 yrs, 19.Purindrasena-5 yrs, 20.Sundara Satakrna-1 yr, 21.Chakora Svatikarna-6 months,22.Sivasvati-28 yrs,23.Gautamiputra Satakarni-21 yrs,24.Pulumavi(Pulumavi II)28 yrs,25.Sivasri-7 yrs,26.Sivaskanda Satakarni-7 yrs,27.Yajnasri Satakarni-29 yrs,28.Vijaya-6 yrs,29.Chandasri Satakarna-10 yrs, and 30.Pulumavi(Pulumavi III).

First description of Satavahana coins is found in the articles of Prinsep in the 1830’s.Elliot’s publication in 1858 is the beginning of study of south Indian coins and his book on South Indian coins in 1886 is a milestone. Edward Thomas’ two articles on Andhra coins in 1877 and 1880 respectively followed by Rapson’s book on Andhra coins in 1906 led to an interest and study of coins of this dynasty. Following are the references on Satavahana coins culled from the literature.

The coins of following Satavahana kings have been described: Satavahana, Chimuka, Krishna, Satakarni I, Satakarni II, Sata, Apilaka, Hala, Gautamiputra Satakarni, Vasistiputra Sri Pulumavi, Vasistiputra Sivasri Satakarni, Vasistiputra Satakarni, Sivasri Pulumavi, Skanda Satakarni, Gautamiputra Yajna Satakarni, Vijaya Satakarni, Vasishtiputra Chandra Satakarni, Pulumavi, Kausikiputra Satakarni, Saka Satakarni, Rudra Satakarni, Kumba Satakarni and Karna Satakarni. Some of these kings are not listed in the Puranas. It may be relevant to note that except for Chimuka no other Satavahana king called himself as Satavahana. Most others called themselves as Satakarnis or Pulumavis after their great early rulers of that name. No purana ever mentioned a king by the name as Satavahana or Sadavahana.

One interesting observation about the Satavahanas is that the family was a matriarchal one since some of these kings called themselves as Gautamiputra, Vasistiputra or Haritiputras. They used their mother’s name but not their fathers. The list of such kings follows: Pulumavi, Siva Sri Pulumavi, Skanda Satakarni, Chandasri Satakarni and Satakarni called themselves as Vasistiputra while Satakarni, Yajnasri Satakarni called themselves as Gautamiputra and there is a king with the name Haritiputra Satakarni.

Satavahanas issued coins predominantly of lead but they issued coins made of potin, copper and silver. Portrait coins are mostly made of silver and a few of lead. Portrait coins of seven Satavahana kings are known: 1). Gautamiputra Satakarni, 2). Gautamiputra Yajnasri Satakarni, 3) Vasistiputra Satakarni, 4). Vasistiputra Pulumavi, 5). Vasistiputra Sivasri Pulumavi, 6). Vasistiputra Skanda Satakarni and 7).Vasistiputra Vijaya Satakarni.

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Ahmad, N. some alleged coins of king Satavahana. JNSI.XXXII, p.58, 1970.
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Altekar, A.S., A new silver coin of Gautamiputra, JNSI.VIII, p.111-13, 1946.
Altekar, A.S. Some rare and unique coins in the Prince of Wales museum, JNSI.XI.p.44-63, 1949.
Altekar, A.S. A new silver coin of Gautamiputra Yajna Satakarni. JNSI. XII, p.126-133, 1950.
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Altekar, P.A new coin type of Vasishti putra Satakarni, JNSI.XIV.p.17-19, 1952.
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Rao, M.R., Two new Satavahana coins, JNSI.XV, p.74, 1953.
Rao, M.R., Significance of Chitaldurg coins. JNSI.XVI.p.197, 1954
Rao, M.R., Some more Satavahana coins. JNSI, XVIII, p.218, 1956.
Rao, M.R., List of published Satavahana coins. Numismatic society of India monograph.6, 1958.
Rao, M.R., Some important Satavahana coins, JNSI.XVIII, p.43.1959.
Rao, M.R., Select Satavahana coins in the government museum, Madras, Madras, 1959.
Rao, M.R., A new find of Satavahana coins, JNSI, XXII, p.258, 1960.
Rao, M.R, Satavahana coins in the A.P.Govt. Museum, Hyderabad, A.P.Govt museum series No.2, 1961.
Rao, M.R., South Indian coins. JNSI.XXVIII, 1966.
Rao, M.R. Presidential address to NSI, Dec, 1966.In: Sixty years of NSI, p.482-490, 1973.
Rao, M.R., Satavahana king Siva Sri, JNSI.XXXV.p.113, 1973.
Rao, RS, Andhra coins, JAHRS, V, p.57-64, 1930.
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Reddy, DR, Coin of the Satavahana king Krishna, N.D. VII, p.24, 1983.
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Reddy, DR, Reddy, P.S., Swastika type Satavahana coins. N.D. XII.17-23.1989.
Reddy, D.R.& Reddy, P.S., Some rare coins of Satavahana dynasty. In: Ajaya Sri.Recent studies in Indology, Ed.D.Handa, Sundeep Prakashan, Delhi, 1889,p.293-300.
Reddy, DR & Reddy, P.S., Sebaka coins from Kotalingala. JNSI. LIII. 32-33, 1991.
Reddy, D.R.& Reddy, P.S., Satavahana coins from Chebrolu, JNSI. LIII. 49-51, 1991.
Reddy, DR, & Reddy, P.S., Some interesting Satavahana coins. SSIC. II.99-106.1992.
Reddy.D.R. & Reddy, P.S., Some rare presatavahana coins of the Deccan. In: Numismatic studies.Vol.II.Ed.D.Handa.1992.
Reddy, DR, Reddy, P.S., Some more new Satavahana coins. In: Numismatic studies.Vol.II.Ed.D.Handa.1992.
Reddy, M.B.M., Rare coins of Vijayaka from Ujjain. J.N.S.I., XLVI, P.34-36, 1984.
Roy, BP, A copper coin of Satakarni from Champa. Proc.of Ind.Hist. Cong.XL.p.1082, 1979.
Sahay, B.K. Portrait coins of Satavahanas, JNSI.LIII.p.30-31, 1991.
Sampath, M.D. A lead coin of Kura Satakumara, SSIC.X, p.101-105, 2000.
Sankalia, HD, A new type of Satavahana coin from Nasik, JNSI.XIV, p.54, 1952.
Sankalia, HD Coins from Nasik excavations (1950-51). JNSI.XV. P.205, 1953.
Sircar, D.C., Was Berar the home province of Satavahanas, JNSI, III, p.61, 87.
Sarma, I.K., The names’ Satavahana satakarni” and the significance of the Srivasta symbol on the Satavahana coinage. Indica, Bombay, IX.no.2, p.83, 1972.
Sarma, I.K., A coin mould piece from Nagarjunakonda excavations. New light on silver coinage of the Satavahanas, JESMO.16, p.89.1972.
Sarma, I.K., Regional distribution, sequence chronology and historical significance of the Satavahana coinage. In: Coinage of the Satavahanas and coins from excavations.Ed.Shastri, A.M.Nagpur University.1972.
Sarma, I.K., A coin mould piece from Nagarjunakonda excavations-new light on the silver coinage of the Satavahanas. Journal of Economic and social history of the orient, Leiden, Holland, XVI, p.89, 1973.
Sarma, I.K., Coinage of Satavahana Empire, Agam kala Prakashan, Delhi, 1980.
Sarma, I.K., Important numismatic find from Duvvuru and Alluru, District Nellore (A.P.) JAINS, III, p.12, 1980.
Sarma, I.K., Satavahana coins from Paithan and connected problems. SSIC I., 33-44,1991.
Sarma, I.K. Lead coins of king Satavahana from Sannati. SSIC, III.65-72.1993.
Sarma, I.K., An appraisal of recent discoveries of south Indian coins. SSIC. V., 9-28.1995.
Sarma, I.K., Coins from Amaravathi excavations, SSIC.VIII.44-57, 1998.
Sarma, I.K. A critical assessment of the coinage of the Satavahanas: sequence and dating, SSIC.XI.p.18-27, 2001.
Sarma, L.P.P., A unique Andhra coin attributed to Apilaka.JAHRS.10, 225-26,1936-37.
Sastri, C.A.P., Three Satavahana coins, J.Epig.Soc.India, VII, p.63, 1980.
Sastry, P.V.P., Unknown coins of Satavahanas and their predecessors. N.D.II.p.10, 1978.
Sastry, P.V.P., Some more coins from Kotalingala. N.D.III.p.17-28, 1979.
Sastry, P.V.P., Some aspects of south Indian numismatics. SSIC. III.9-18, 1993.
Sastry, P.V.P., Satavahana epoch-A new light, Telugu gosthi, Hyderabad, 1994.
Scott, H.R., Satavahana restruck silver coins. JBBRAS.Vol.XXII, p.223-243.1908.
Sethi, R. The Satavahanas-A numismatic study, p.161-166.
Shah, D., Roman influence on the coins of Yaznasri Satakarni, ONS newsletter No.118, p.7, 1989.Also ONS newsletter No.124, 1990.
Shastry, A.M., Journal of Oriental Institute, XXIII, p.324-28,
Shastri A.M., The epoch of Satavahana rule. Coinage of Satavahanas and coins from excavations, Nagpur university, p.106, 1972.
Shastri, A.M., A unique coin of Satakarni from Pauni, JNSI. XXXV, p.106, 1973.
Shastri, A.M., The initial period of the silver coinage of the Satavahanas. J.of oriental Inst. of Baroda, XXIII, p.324, 1973-74.
Shastri, A.M., A unique coin of Satakarni from Pauni, JNSI.XXXV. P.106, -112,1973.
Shastri, A.M., A note on the silver coin of Vashistiputra Pulumavi, JNSI. XXXVIII, p.17, 1976.
Shastri, A.M., Some Satavahana silver portrait coins. J.of the Acad.Ind.Num. & Sigillography, Indore. III.p.6, 1980.
Shastri, A.M., A terracotta proof piece of the silver coin of Vasisthiputra Pulumavi, JNSI, XLII, p.115, 1980.
Sastry, A.M., JNSI, XLII, p.116.1980.
Shastri, A.M. Some Satavahan silver portrait coins, JAINS.Vol.III, p.6-11, 1980.
Shastri, A.M., Numismatic notes, JNSI. XLIII, Part.II.p.134-137, 1981.
Shastri, A.M. An interesting silver coin of Yajna Satakarni, N.D., V, p.16-18, 1981.
Shastri, A.M., Presatavahana and Satavahana coinage of the Deccan. JNSI.XLIV.p.1-16, 1982.
Shastri, A.M., A coin of Kumara Sata from Satanikota.N.D.V.p.8, 1982.
Shastri, A.M., Satavahana coins from Malwa. Indore University research Journal, Epigraphy, IV.p.4-12.
Shastri, A.M., Satavahana silver coinage. SSIC. I., p.45-60.1991.
Shastri, A.M. A new variety coin of Skanda Satakarni, Numismatic Studies, Vol.I.Ed, D.Handa, p.53-55, 1991.
Shastri, A.M., Kondapur: A Satavahana silver coins mint. SSIC. III, p.81-86, 1993.
Shastri, A.M. Vashithiputra Vijaya Satakarni, N.D., XVII.p.29-36, 1993.
Shastri, A.M., Three Satavahana mint towns. SSIC, IV.57-62, 1994.
Shastri, A.M., Junnar: A mint town of the Satavahanas. SSIC. V, p.51-56, 1995.
Shastri, A.M., Early Satavahana coinage. SSIC, VIII.7-26, 1998.
Shastri, A.M. Alleged coins of Satavahana king Krishna, SSIC.IX.p.37-41, 1999.
Shastri, A.M & Seth, R.K., A new hoard of Satavahana coins, JNSI, XXXVII, p.25, 1975.
Shastri, A.M. and Godbole, C.S. Two potin coins of Satakarni and Naganika, N.D., XVIII, p.69-74, 1994.
Siddiqui, A.H., A note on some Satavahana coins. JNSI. XXVIII, p.54,1966.
Siddiqui, A.H., Some more coins of King Satavahana.JNSI.XXXIX, p.77, 1977.
Siddiqui, A.H., Some horse type coins. JNSI.XXXXII.p.116, 1980.
Siddiqui, A.H., Devi, UL, A copper coin of Satavahana ruler with the name Savamasa. SSIC. V., p. 57-58,1995.
Siddiqui, A.H., Kasturi Bai, M. and Bhanu Kumari, Ch. A new coin type of king Satavahana. SSIC. VI.p.25-28, 1966.
Siddiqui, A.H., Bai, M.K., Devi, U.L., An important coin of Skanda Satakarni. SSIC. VI.p.29-30.1996.
Siddiqui, A.H., Some more Cakra type Satavahana coins from Telengana. In: Oriental numismatic studies, Ed.D.Handa, Sundeep Prakashan, New Delhi, 1999.
Sircar, D.C., Silver coins of Vasisthiputra Satakarni.EI.XXXV.p.247, 1965.
Sircar, D.C., Was Berar the home province of the Satavahanas, JNSI, III, p.61.1941.
Smith, VA, Catalogue of coins in the Indian museum Calcutta. Vol.I. Reprint.p.213. 1972.
Smith, V. Andhra history and coinage.FDMG.LVI.p.649, 1902. Sohoni, S.V., Notes on Satavahana bust coinage, JNSI, XVII, ii, p.100, 1955.
Sohoni, S.V., Reference to Satavahana coinage in Gathasapta Sati, JNSI.XVII, p.105, 1955.
Sohoni.S, V., A coin of Pulumavi.JNSI.XVII, p.110, 1956.
Srivastava, GM, The bearing of Satavahana coins on the economic conditions of western India Coins and early Indian economy, Varanasi, p.114, 1976.
Subba Rao, R., Andhra coins. JABRS, p., 1930.
Subramanyam, R. Unique Satavahana coin, JOU.p.123, 1968.
Tarapore, P.S., A unique lead Satavahana coin, JNSI, VII, p.5, 1945.
Thomas, E., Coins of the Andhra dynasty, early coins of western India. I.A.VI, p.274-277, 1877.
Thomas, E., Andhra coins, The Indian antiquary, vol., p.61-65, 1880.
Trivedi, H.V., Counterstriking devices of Gautamiputra Satakarni. JNSI. XVII.Part II.P.97.
Trivedi, H.V., Some bronze coins from north Gujarat, VVRB. I, p.7, 1951.
Trivedi, H.V., A unique portrait coin of Vasistiputra Pulumavi, JNSI. . XIV.p.1, 1952.
Trivedi, H.V., A Satavahana coin from Ujjain, JNSI.XV.p.3, 1952.
Trivedi, H.V., Coins of king Satavahana.JNSI.XX.p.253, 1960.
Trivedi, H.V., Gupta, PL Observations on some Satavahana coins. JNSI.XV, p.90, 1954,
Tripathi, R.R., A Satavahana sealing from Kausambi, JNSI, XXXIV, p.70, 1972.
Tuffnel, R.H.C., Hints to coin collectors in south India. Madras, 1889.
Tye, R. Ancient India-the obverse of Sri-Sata coin, ONS newsletter No.51, 1977.
Varma, L.B. Silver coins of Skanda Satakarni, N.D., XVII, p.25-28, 1993.
Varma, R.L., An unpublished coin of Sivasri Pulumavi, IIRNS Newsline, 31, p.6, 2001.
Wheeler, R.E.M., The Chandravalli coins. AI, IV, p.287, 1947.

References: Meghavahana coins.

Meghavahana dynasty of Kalinga was contemporary to Satavahanas and their rule extended to coastal Andhra. The coins this dynasty were discovered by us and these coins stand out among Deccan coins on account of their not bearing any legend indicative of the family name of the issuer. Moreover, in the absence of any literary evidence even the names of this dynasty have not been known with the exception of three figuring in Hathigumpa and Manchapuri inscriptions. The coins brought to light the names of the hitherto unknown rulers of the Meghavahana dynasty. Recent discovery of more of these coins bringing to light names of new kings.

Jayaswal, K.P., Hathigumpa inscription of the emperor Kharavela (73B.C. -160 BC). JBORS, 3,p.425, 1917.
Jha, AK and Veerender, M., Velepuru inscription and Mahasada, N.D.XV.p.23-30, 1991.
Kasturi Bai, M. Coins from Vaddamanu excavations. In: Numismatics and archaeology, 2nd International colloquium held by Indian institute of research in numismatic studies, p.102-112, and 1986. Also in JNSI.p.4-13, 1986.
Kasturi Bai, M., Sada: A new dynasty discovered at Vaddamanu, Guntur Dist. in coastal A.P.JNSI.XLVIII.p.14-23, 1986.

5. Prasad, P.R.K. The Sadas-A presatavahana dynasty in coastal Andhra, PAPHC.XV.p.34-40, 1991.

6. Prasad, P.R.K., A new coin of Asakasadasa from Amaravati. NSI.LV.44-49, 1993.

Prasad, P.R.K., Sada coins in coastal Andhra. SSIC. III.p.53-64, 1993.
Prasad, P.R.K. Coins of Siri Sada, PAPHC, XVIII, p.22-25, 1994.
Prasad, P.R.K. Pre-Sada phase at Sri Dhanyakataka, PAPHC.XIX, p.29-32, 1995.
Rao, B.S.L.H. A lead coin from Chebrolu. In: Ind. His.Cong.Proc. Mysore, p.112-114,1966.
Rapson, E.J., Catalogue of the coins of the Andhra dynasty, New Delhi, 1975.
Reddy, DR, Reddy, P.S., Coins of Meghavahana dynasty of coastal Andhra. The Numismatic Society of Hyderabad.1985.
Sastry, V.V.K. Three grants of Prithivi Sri Mula Raja from Kondavidu, Govt. of A.P., Hyderabad, 1992.

References: Roman coins in Andhra

The early centuries of Christian era was marked by Indo-Roman trade, the trade with north was overland while with the south was maritime. Large number of gold and silver coins of Roman rulers were found in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu as treasure troves and in excavations. The coins of Augustus, Tiberius, Septimius Severus, Claudius, Nero, Vespasian, Hadrian etc were found in Andhra who ruled Rome between 1^st century BC onwards.

Gupta, PL Roman coins from A.P., A.P.Govt. Museum series No.10, Hyderabad, 1965.
Gupta, P.L. Coins in Rome’s Indian trade, a paper presented at the 3^rd International colloquium at Nasik, IIRNS, and Jan 8-11,1991.

3. Murthy, M.S.K. Roman coins from south India: A study based on distribution and typology. SSIC.II, p.67-76, 1992.

4. Thurstan, E. Roman coins found in India, JRAS.p.22, 1904. 4Sarma, I.K. Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh: Their contexts, chronology and cultural significance, SSIC, II, p.35-50, 1992.

5. Sastry, V.V.K. Roman gold coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh, A.P. Museum series-21, Govt. of A.P., 1992.

6. Sastry, V.V.K. Presidential address, JNSI.LVII.p.1-13, 1995.

Shastri, A.M. Imperial Roman coins in early Deccanese inscriptions, SSIC.II, p.77-88, 1992.

References: Satrap or feudatory coins

It is strange that not much is known of the history of the Deccan covering the last phase of the Satavahana era and the first few centuries after the eclipse of their rule. Numismatics has sometimes provided the only evidence that can be had of the existence of some rulers of that period. It is of common belief, if not knowledge that high officials or satraps of that era had the authority to issue coins. Some of these high officials of the Satavahana period who had such titles as Talavara or Mahatalavara, Mahasenapati, Maharathi and Mahagramika were known to have issued coins. Though this may appear as a curious fact of Indian numismatics, it is not uncommon, since such a practice was prevalent even during the recent Asaf Jahi rule when such coins known as ‘chalni’ coins came to be issued by feudatories of the Nizam. We published detailed description of coins of high officials of Satavahana era in our book. Sebaka name also occurs on Mahatalavara and Mahasenapathi coins and it seems likely that ‘Sebaka’ could have been a personal or family name. It is noteworthy that none of these coins is found the word ‘Siri’,’Rajno’,’Ranno’ or ‘Ramno’ suggestive of their being independent kings. All the Satavahana kings, it is seen, used these prefixes to suggest that royal authority issued the coins. Epigraphic, literary and puranic literature too does not afford any evidence of their having ever been independent rulers.

References:Mahatalavara coins

Mirashi, V.V., A coin of Prakasa Siva Sebaka, JNSI.VIII.p.107, 1946.
Mirashi.V.V. A coin of Mahatalavara. JNSI, 15,117,1953.
Rao, D., A rare coin of Sebaka dynasty, JNSI.XXII, p.100, 1960.
Rao, D., A lead coin of Siva Sebaka, N.D.I, Part.II, p.77, 1977.
Reddy, DR, Reddy, P.S., Coins of the satraps of the Satavahana era. The Numismatic Society of Hyderabad.1983.
Reddy, DR, Reddy, P.S., Mahatalavara and Mahasenapati coins. SSIC. I, 71-80.1991.
Reddy, DR, Reddy.P.S. New Mahatalavara coins. JNSI. LV., 42-43, 1993.
Siddiqui, A.H., Some horse type coins, JNSI.XXXX, p.118, 1980.

References: Maharathi coins

Ahamad, N., The Maharathi coins of Karnataka.JNSI.LII.74-80.1990
Altekar, A.S., Satavahana (Andhra) coins. NS, XLVI.p.330, 1935-36.
Angal, D.G. A new maharathi coin, JNSI.LIX.p.1997.
Deo, SB, and Chatte, S.G., A new Maharathi coin from Vidarbha, JNSI. , XXXV, p.236, 1973.
Gupta, L.C., Heavy weight lead coins of Andhra's Maharathis. JNSI, LV, 31-39,1993.
Gupta, L.C., Heavy weight lead coins of Maharathis of Andhra, SSIC. IV.79-86.1994.
Gupta, L.C. Some rare lead coins of maharathis, N.D., XXI-XXII.p.11-12, 1997-1998.
Gupta, PL, Coins of Maharathi SivaKshapana. SSIC.V.45-50, 1995.
Kamalakar, G., Veerender, M., Coins from Veerapuram excavations. Numismatic Bull.3.Birla archaeological and cultural research institute, Hyderabad.1991.
Krishna, M.H., Chandravalli excavations. Supplement to Mysore archaeological. Dept. Annual rep., p.63, and 1940.
Mirashi, V.V., A lead coin from Kondapur.JNSI.XI.p.85.1949.

12. Mirashi, V.V., Some more coins of Mahisha dynasty from Nasik and Kondapur excavations, Published by Hyderabad museum, p.1, 1950.

Rao, M.R., Maharathi and Ananda coins, JNSI.XIX.p.150, 1950.
Rao, M.R., A new Maharathi coin, JNSI.XIX, part, p.84, 1957.
Rao, M.R., The significance of Chitradurg coins. JNSI.XVI.p.197-204.1954.
Rao, M., R. Maharathi and Andhra coins, JNSI.XXII, p.150.1960.
Rapson, E.J., Catalogue of coins of Andhra dynasty.
Reddy, DR, Reddy, P.S., Coins of the satraps of Satavahana era. The numismatic society of Hyderabad, 1983.
Reddy, DR, Reddy, P.S., A Maharathi coin from Sangareddy. SSIC. IV.87-88, 1994.
Sankalia et al. Excavations at Brahmapuri (Kolhapur). 1952.
Sastry, P.A.P., Coins of Maharathis in Andhra. SSIC. I, 65-70,1991.
Shastri, T.V.G., Maharathi coins & their chronology. JNSI.XLIX.22-33, 1987.
Sastri.T.V.G.Maharathi coins and their chronology. In: Ajaya Sri, Recent studies in Indology, Ed. D.Handa, Sundeep Prakashan, Delhi, 1989,p.301-312.
Siddiqui, A.H., On a new Maharathi coin. JNSI.XXVIII, p.57, 1965.
Siddiqui, A.H., Copper seal of Maharathi Asvaghosa. N.D.XI, p.94-95, 1987.
Siddiqui, A.H. and Khan, M.F.A. a lead coin of a Maharathi ruler of Andhra, SSIC.IX.p.42-44, 1999.
Sircar, D.C., Alleged coins of Mahisha kings. Studies in Indian coins. Motilal Banarasidas publications, Varanasi, p.138, 1968.
Wheeler.R.E.M. Chandravalli coins. Ancient India.Vol.4, p.289-305, 1947.

References: Mahasenapathi coins

Kaus, H., An unpublished Andhra coin. NS JASB, XLIV. Article.311, 1933.
Mirashi, V.V., Coins of Saka Mana of Kondapur. JNSI. XI. P.1.1949.
Mirashi, V.V. Some more coins of Mahisha dynasty, JNSI, XI, 1,1949.
Mirashi, V.V., Some more Mahisha coins from Kondapur excavations, Numismatic series no, 8.Published by Hyderabad museum, 1950.
Mirashi, V.V. A coin of king Mana Chutuka, JNSI.XII, p.87, 1950.
Mirashi, V.V., Numismatic series No.7.Coins of king Sumahagramaka from Kondapur excavations, Hyderabad museum, Hyderabad, 1950.
Mirashi, V.V., JNSI.XV. P.115-117, 1953.
Mirashi, V.V., Coins of Sivala Mahisha.JNSI.XV.p.120, 1953.
Mirashi, V.V. A note on the coins of Mahisha kings. EI.XXXVII, p.47, 1967.
Puri, K.M., Excavations at Raira.1939
Rapson, E.J., Catalogue of Indian coins. Oriental Book reprint corporation, New Delhi. 1968. P.11.
Rao, D., A new coin of Mana chutuka. N.D.I, part. II, p.23, 1977.
Reddy, DR, Reddy, P.S., The coins of the satraps of Satavahana era. The numismatic society of Hyderabad.1983.
Sankarnarayan, S., Controversial legend of the Kondapur coins. JNSI. XXXIV.p.36, 1972.
Siddiqui, A.H., Some Mahasenapati coins of the Deccan, JNSI. LVI.p.15-17, 1994.
Sircar, D.C. The Mahishas of the Mahisha country. JNSI.XII, p.50, 1950.
Sircar, D.C., Numismatic studies in India. JNSI. XVIII. P.7.
Sircar, D.C., Alleged coins of King Sumahagramaka JNSI.XXII. P.168, 1960.
Sircar, D.C. Alleged coins of Mahisha kings. EI. XXXV.p.69, 1963-4.
Sircar, D.C., Studies in Indian coins, Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi. 1968.p.126.
Sircar, D.C., Presidential address of the year 1956.Sixty years of the numismatic society of India. (1910-1971). History and presidential addresses. Published by the numismatic society of India, p.354, and 1973.
Srivastava, O.P.L. A coin of Senapati Aditamitra from Erich, JNSI.LV, P.40-41, 1993.
Srivastava, O.P.L., Coin of an unknown Mitra king bearing the title Mahasenapati from Erich.JNSI.LVIII.p.31-32, 1996.

References: Mahagramika

Chaudhary, K., On Mahagramika coins. JNSI.XLIX.34-35, 1987.
Mirashi, V.V., Coins of king Sumahagramika from Kondapur excavations. Numismatic series no.7.Hyderabad museum, 1950.

References: Sebaka coins

Dikshit, M.G., Another coin of king Sebaka. JNSI.XXX, p.186.
Gupta, PL, Num.Dig.I.Part.II, p.138.
Mirashi, V.V., A coin of king Sebaka, JNSI.VII.p.94, 1945.
Mirashi, V.V., A coin of Prakasasiva Sebaka, JNSI, VIII, p.107, 1946.
Mirashi.V.V.JNSI.XXII.p.160, 1960.
Rao, D., A lead coin of Siva Sebaka.N.D.I.Part.II.p.17-22, 1977
Rao, D., A rare coin of Sebaka dynasty, JNSI.XXII.p.160, 1960.
Sethi, R.K., New coins of Sebaka, N.D.I.Part.II.p.10-16.1977.
Sethi, R.K., The Sebakas, JNSI.XLIV.151-154.1882.
Siddiqui, A.H., JNSI.XXXIX, p.78, 1977.
Siddique, A.H., Some horse type coins. JNSI, XLII, p.118, 1980.
Srikanth Reddy, D. A new Sebaka coin.N.D.VII.p.27-31, 1983.

References: Ikshvaku coins

Ikshvakus were immediate successors of Satavahanas in lower Krishna valley and coins and inscriptions found at Nagajuna konda that identified their coins. These are made of lead of the elephant / Ujjain type and they have few words in abbreviated form indicating the names of the kings. There were four kings of this dynasty who ruled between 225 AD to 310 AD. The kings were Vasistiputra Sri Chamtamula (227-250AD), Mathariputra Sri Virapurusadatta I (250-270AD), Vasistiputra Sri Ehavata Chamtamula (270-295AD) and Rudrapurisadatta (295-306AD). It is not known whether Virapurisadatta II ruled from Ikshvaku capital. Ikshvakus followed the pattern of Satavahana coins made of lead with elephant and Ujjain symbols.

Munirathnam, K. A lead coin from Andhra Pradesh, SSIC.XII.p.16, 2002.
Ravishankar, T.S. A note on some Ikshvaku coins, SSIC.X, p.32-36, 2000.
Sarma, I.K. Important numismatic finds from Duvvuru and Alluru, District Nellore (AP). JAINS, III, p.12-15, 1980.
Sarma, I.K., A critical study of the numismatic evidences from Nagarjunakonda excavations, Studies in south Indian coins, IV.p.63-78, 1994.
Subrahmanyam, R., A catalogue of the Ikshvaku coins in the Andhra Pradesh Govt. museum. Museum series No.5, Hyderabad, 1962
Indian archeology-a review.1956-57, p.38.

References: Vishnukundin coins

Vishnukundins ruled from mid 4th to 6th centuries Ad and majority of coins of this dynasty are uninscribed and hence ascribing them to Vishnukundins has been a controversial issue. Earlier, the coins with the lion on the obverse were considered as Pallava coins. But a majority of scholars in recent years have veered round to the view that coins with lion and bull symbol on the obverse and a vase or kalasa with lamp posts on either side, inside a rayed border, belong to Vishnukundins. Some bull type coins have been described with rayed border and these were found in Yelleswaram excavations along with the lion type. The lion type coins are regarded as belonging to earlier period of Vishnukundin rule and many design of the coins on the obverse suggest that may be issues of different rulers of this dynasty. Provenance of these coins seems to have been the major factor in ascribing these coins to Vishnukundin dynasty and also the fact that ‘Lion’ is their family crest.

The kings of this dynasty are Maharajendra Varma, Madava varman I, GovindavarmaI, MadhavarmaII, MadhavaVarmaII, Devavarman, MadhavaVarmaIII, Vikramendraverman, IndrabhattarakaVarman, Vikramendrabhattaraka Varma, Govindavarman II, Madhavavarma IV and lastly Manchanabhattaraka.

Acharya, K.V., Vishnukundins and their coins. Andhra Pradesh, XIV.p.12.
Ali, A.M., A note on so called Vishnukundin coins. JNSI. XLV., 51-52,1983.
Chattopadyaya, BD, The problem relating to Vishnukundin coins. JNSI. XXXIII.p.67-79.1971.
Dhopate, S.G., More on Vishnukundin Inscribed coins. N.D., XVI.p.112-127, 1992.
Gopalachari, K. Early history of the Andhra country, Madras University historical series No.16, University of Madras, p.205-210, 1976.
Kothari, N., Morrison, M., Inscribed Vishnukundin type coins. N.D. XII.p.63-66.1989.
Mangalam, S.J., Kalasa symbol on Vishnukundi coins-A reinterpretation. JNSI.LI.p.79-81, 1989.
Mangalam, S.J., Inscribed Vishnukundin coins A review. JNSI.LII.70-73, 1990.
Mangalam, S.J., A unique inscribed Vishnukundin coin from Vidarba. SSIC. I., 81-86,1991.
Mangalam, S.J., New varieties of Vishnukundin coins from Maharashtra. SSIC. V., 67-76,1995.
Mirashi, V.V., The find of a Vishnukundin coin near Nagpur. JNSI, XXXIII. P.126-127.
Padmanabha Sastri, C.A. A re-examination of some coins of Vishnukundins, SSIC.X, p.111-113, 2000.
Prasad, P.R.K., A new variety of Vishnukundin coins from Vidarbha. JNSI.XXXIII.p.80-83.
Ramayya, S., Inscribed Vishnukundin coins JNSI.XXIX, p.81, 1967.
Rao, M.R., Vishnukundin coins, JNSI.XXVIII, p.38, 1966.
Rao, M.R. Vishnukundin coins in Andhra Pradesh Govt museum. Hyderabad.Hyderabad, 1963.
Rao, U.S. Inscribed Vishnukundin coinsJNSI. XXIX.p.81-85, 1967.
Reddy, DR, Some interesting Vishnukundin coins, N.D.VIII.67-70.1984.
Sarma, I.K., Vishnukundin coins from Pedda vegi excavations and related issues.N.D.XVI.95-111, 1992.
Sarma, I.K., Coins from Peddavegi excavations (1985-87), SSIC, VI.p.49-65, 1966.
Sastri, P.V.P. Two coins of Srirama.N.D.XII.p.67-71, 1989.
Shastri, A.M., Two new varieties of Vishnukundin coins from Vidarbha. JNSI.XXVIII, p.164-69, 1966.
Shastri, A.M., Vishnukundins in Maharashtra, VIS., XI.p.95.1973.
Shastri, A.M., A note on Vishnukundin coin.N.D.VIII.71-72, 1984.

References: Eastern Gangas

The chronology of These kings (896-1038 AD): Vajrahasta I, Gundama I, Kamarnava I, Vinayaditya, Vajrahasta II, Kamarnava II, Gundama II, Madhukamarnava and Vajrahasta III.

1. Das, HC The tradition of coinage in Orissa.JNSI.XLIX.p.125-134, 1987.

2. Sircar, D.C. Gajapati pagoda, Ganga fanam and Ram tanka. In: Studies in Indian coins. Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, p.243-258, 1968.

References: Coins of Salankayanas of Peddavegi

Salankayanas ruled in 4th and 5th centuries AD. Salankayana is said to be the name of a gotra and not a dynastic name, which may be Vaingeyaka. Names of these kings are Devavarman, Hastivarman, Nandivarman, Candavarman and Skandavarman.

1. Gopalachari, K.Early history of the Andhra country, Madras university historical series No.16, University of Madras, p.168-189, 1976.

Ramayya.S. Salankayana coins.JNSI.XXIX.p.42-43, 1967
Ramchandran, TN, Copper coins of the Salankayana king Chandavarman, In: D.R.Bhandarkar volume, Ed.B.C.Law, Calcutta, 1940,p.213-216.

4. Sarma, I.K., Salankayana coins from Ghantasala, District Krsna (AP) In: Ajaya Sri, Recent studies in Indology, Ed.D.Handa, Sundeep Prakashan, Delhi, 1989,p.313-318.

Sircar, D.C., Early Indian indigenous coins, Calcutta, 1971.

References: Pallava coins

Pallavas of Kanchi ruled part of southern Andhra and northern part of Tamil country (Tondaimandalam) from 350 AD to 900 AD. Elliot and Desikachari wrongly attributed lion type coins to these rulers but these are now known to belong to kings of other dynasties. In recent years bull type of lead and copper coins bearing the legend in the pallava grantha with the known titles of Pallava kings have been described.

Chattopadhyaya, B., Coins and currency systems in southern India, New Delhi, p.196-201, 1977.
Desikachari, T., Pallava coins. In: South Indian coins. Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, p.29-37, 1984 &p.113-135.
Elliot, W., Coins of southern India, London, 1886.
Helliaratehi, D.P.E. A note on unpublished Pallava coin, JCBRAS, IV.p.72, 1953.Jeyaraj, V. A technical study of Pallava lead coin. SSIC.I, p.121-124, 1991.
Krishna, C. Discovery of a Pallava coin (?) at Nagar, District Bhandara, Maharashtra, JNSI.XXVI.p.240, 1964.
Krishna, M.H. Pallava coins Annual report of Mysore Archaeological department, p.75, and 1940.
Krishnamurthy, R., Coins of Pallava king Mahendravarman I (580-630) JNSI, L., p.33-34, 1988.
Krishnamurthy, R., Some unpublished rare coins of Pallavas, JNSI.L.p.35-36, 1988.
Krishnamurthy, R., Pallava coin with lion symbol, LI., p.90-92, 1989.
Krishnamurthy, R., Two more Pallava coins with legends. JNSI.LIII.p.62-63, 1991.
Meenakshi, C., Administration and social life under the Pallavas, p.86,

12. Nagaswamy, R., Tamil coins-A study, Madras, p.123-131, 1981.

13. Raman, K.V., Pallava coins at Kanchi. JNSI.XXI.p.185.

Raman, K.V. and Shanmugam, P., Pallava coin moulds from Kanchipuram excavations, Studies in south Indian coins, V., p.77-80, 1995.
Ramayya, S., The puzzle of the Pallava coinage and some new Pallava coins, JNSI.XXIX, p.22-32, 1967.

16. Shanmugam, P., Some aspects of monetary system of the Pallavas. SSIC, III.p.101-108, 1993.

Thirugnanasampandam, K.A., Kanchi-Pallava coins, Erode, 1989.
Thirugnanasambandam, K.A., History and culture of Pallavas through coins, LI., p.109-121, 1989.

References: Coins of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi

Eastern Chalukyan dynasty ruled for five centuries from the middle of seventh century and their coins were also found in Burma and Siam. Two types of coins of these rulers are known: Lion and Boar.

The kings of this dynasty were: Kubja Vishnuvardana, Jayasimha I, Vishnuvardana III, Vishnuvardana IV, Vijayaditya II, Vijayaditya III, Chalukya Bima I, Vijayaditya IV, Amma I, Yuddamalla II, Chalukya Bima II, Amma II and Dhanarnava.

1. Abels, B, U., An early Chalukyan coin. JNSI.L, 37-38,1988.

Balakrishnan, T. the Dowalaishweran hoard of Eastern Chalukyan and Chola coins. Madras, p.17-19, 1966.
Chattopadhyaya, BD, Coinage of early medieval Andhra-a note on chronology and ditribution, JAHRS, XXXV, p.245, 1976.
Fleet, J.F., Some gold coins of eastern Chalukyan kings Saktivarman and Raja Raja II.IA, XIX, p.79.
Krishna, M.H., Coins of eastern Chalukyas, AMAD, p.108, 1941
Murari, K., Some observations on the coins of Chalukyas. INC.IX, p.41, 1971.
Nayar, T. & Balakrishnan. The Dolaiswaran hoard of Eastern Chalukyan and Chola coins. Madras, 1966.
Raghavacharya, K. & Prasad, P.R.K., Some Eastern Chalukya coins from coastal Andhra, Sri Mallampalli Somashekara Sarma commemoration volume, JAHRS, XXXV, p.251-253, 1976.
Ramayya, S. The electrum coins of Vikramaditya.JNSI.XXVI.p.244, 1964
Ramamohan, R., Coins of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.JNSI.LIV.p.124-127, 1992.
Rao, M.R., Eastern Chalukyan coins in A.P.Govt. Museum. Hyderabad, 1963.
Sarma, I.K., Coins from Peddavegi excavations (1985-87). Studies in south Indian coins, VI.p.49-65, 1996.
Sreenivas, T., Coins of Vishamasiddi or Kubja Vishnuvardana, the first king of Eastern Chalukyan dynasty of Vengi, RADN.16, 1925-26.
Yazdani.Indian antiquary, XIX, p.79-82.

References: Coins of Western Chalukya of Badami, Kalyani &Vatapi

The Chalukyas of Badami: Pulakesin I, Kirtivarman I, Mangles, Pulakesin II, Vikramaditya I, Vinayaditya, Vijayaditya, Vikramaditya II, and Kirtivarman II.

There were minor lines like Chalukyas of Mudugonda and Vemalawada. The genealogy of The Chalukyas of Vemulavada kings: Vinayaditya Yuddhamalla I, Arikesari I, Narasimha I, Yuddhamalla II, Baddega, Yuddhamalla III, Narasimha II, Arikesari II, Vagaraja, and Arikesari III.The great Kannada poet Pampa lived and composed his works here.

The Chalukyas of Kalyani were: Taila I, Taila II, Satyasraya, Vikramaditya V, Ayyana Jayasimha II, Someswara I, Someswara II, Vikramaditya VI, Someswara III, Jagadekamalla II, Taila III, and Someswara IV.

1. Desikachari.T. The Chalukyas and their coinage. In: South Indian coins, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, p.38-61, 1984.

2. Girijapathy, and Ganesh, K. Three rare coins of the Chalukyas of Kalyani.JNSI.LVII.p.44-45, 1995.

3. Girijapathy, M. and Ganesh, K. Peacock motif gold coins of Kalyani Chalukyas, SSIC.IX.p.82-83, 1999.

4. Havaliah, N. Did the early Chalukyas issue coins? SSIC.II, p.111-114, 1992.

5. Krishna, M.H., Archaeological survey of Mysore, Annual report, p.99-100, 1933.

6. Mahajan,N.Chalukya- a gold coin Bhairava-gadyana of the western Chalukya ruler Jayasimha II Jadadekamalla? ONS newsletter No.160,1999.

7. Mangalam, S.J. Gold coins of Chalukyas of Kalyana, SSIC.X, p.37-43, 2000.

8. Mirashi, V.V. A coin of Jayasraya.JNSI.XXI.p.135, 1959.

9. Murari, K. Some observation on the coins of Chalukyas, INC., IX.p.41, 1971.

Narasimha Murthy, A.V.& Kumbhar, A.N. A new later Chalukyan coin. SSIC. VIII.p.65-66, 1998.
Radhakrishnan, P.V., Varu, D.D. and Verma, L.B. Three gold punch marked coins of the Kalyana Chalukyas, SSIC.XII, p.20-24, 2002.
Rajgor, D. Coins and currency of the Chalukyas of Gujarat, JNSI.LIX.p.1997.
Ramayya S. the eloctrum coins of Vikramaditya. JNSI.XXVI.p.244-45
Ramayya, S. On a unique gold coin of Vikramaditya I of the western Chalukya dynasty of Badami, JNSI, XXVII.p.47-48, 1965.
Sastry, P.V.P., Note on the silver coin attributed to the Chalukyas of Vatapi. In: Oriental numismatic studies, Ed.D.Handa, Sundeep Prakashan, New Delhi, 1999.

References: Coins of Rashtrakutas of Malkhed

The Rastrakuta kings were: Dantidurga (735-755), Krishna I (756-772), Govinda II (773-780), Dhruva Dharavarsha (780-793), Govinda III (793-814) Sarva Amoghavarsha (819-880), Krishna II (880-914), Indra III (914-928) Amoghavarsha II (928-929), Govinda IV ((30-936), Amoghavarsha III (936-939), Krishna III (939-967), Khottiga (967-973) and Karkka II (972-973).

Bhandare, S.U. Coins of Rashtrakutas, N.D., XX, p.71-76, 1996.
Bhandare, S. A copper coin of Rashtrakuta Dhruva, IIRNS newsline No.27, p.4, 2000.
Prabhu, M.M. A gold coin of Rastrakuta king Krishna III, SSIC.XI.p.82-91, 2001.
Sircar, D.C. Alleged copper coins of Rashtrakuta Kakka II.JNSI, XXI, 1959.

References: Coins of Bana chiefs

Prabhu, N.M. An unpublished gold coin of Bana king Sri Vairigajakesari, SSIC.V.p.81-82, 1995.

References: Coins of Western Gangas of Talakkad

The Gangas of Talakad ruled for over seven centuries from 4^th to 11^th century AD. Their coinage is rare. A group of gold coins called Gajapati pagodas with caparisoned elephant on the obverse and a floral design on the reverse are attributed to these kings. The attribution is based on the similarity of the caparisoned elephant seen on the coins and the animal depicted on their copper plates and seals.

1. Ganesh, K. and Girijapathy, M. An inscribed gold coin of Western Ganga king Butuga II, SSIC.IX.p.71-73, 1999.

2. Gopal, R. A new copper coin of the western Gangas. SSIC, VIII, p.67-68, 1998.

3. Krishna, M.H., Mysore archaeological report, p.97, 1939.

4. Narasimhamurthy, A.V., Mysore archaeological report, p.98-99, 1939.

5. sircar, D.C. Gajapati pagoda, Ganga fanam and Rama-tanka.In: Studies in Indian coins. Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, p.243-258, 1968.

References: Coins of Kakatiyas.

The Kakatiya rulers: Beta I (1000-1050 AD), Prola I (1050-1080 AD), Beta II (1080-1115 AD), Prola II (1115-1158 AD), Rudradeva (1158-1195 AD), Mahadeva (1195-1199 AD), Ganapatideva (1199-1261 AD), Rudramadevi (1259-1295 AD) and Prataparudra (1295-1323 AD).

Controversy persists regarding the copper coins said to have been issued by Pratapa Rudra whether he belonged to the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal or Gajapathi rulers of Orissa or Kalinga. All these coins were found in Kakatiya territory and none in the Kalinga region. The legends and words found on these coins namely the epithet Sri, Madhukara and Gajapathi, the title Kakati, mint town Vijaya Kataka, anka or saka era have been debatable among scholars. Even the reading of the coins published varied among scholars. There seem to consensus that these copper coins may be issues of Kalinga but one has to consider their provenance and total absence of other copper coins of this dynasty, though in general there were paucity of coins of many dynasties belonging to early medieval period. Gupta concluded that publication of further reports of these coins might clarify in assigning them to kings of one dynasty or other.

As for the silver and gold coins in Andhra Pradesh Government museum with the titles Rayagajakesari and Dayagajakesari without any name of the king or his dynasty seem to belong to Gajapati Deva and his daughter Rudrama Devi based on epigraphical evidence Terala inscription of Pratapa Rudra These coins were earlier attributed to Western Chalukyan kings and also the kings of other dynasties. Silver and gold coins with the name ‘Rudra’ have been described from 1840’s onwards and they may belong to Kakatiyas.

Ahmad, N., Dates on the coins of Kakatiya Pratapa Rudra Deva. JNSI. XXIX, p.49,1967
Ali,M.A., Kakatiya and few other rare coins from Warangal. JNSI.XXVIII, p.71, 1966.
Ali, A., Legend of Kakatiya copper coins. JNSI.XXIX, part.II.p.85, 1967,
Ali, MA, On the attribution of Prataparudra's copper coin, JNSI.XXXII. P.188.1970.
Ali, MA, A Kakatiya copper coin-fresh study. N.D.III, 61-64,1979.
Ayyangar, R.S.R., Coins of Kavaiyavalli treasure-trove case, JAHS, I.P., 137.
Ayyangar, R.S.R., South Indian gold coins. POC,1924,p.82.
Bird, J., Hindu gold coins found at the village Hewli, in the southern konkan, JBBRAS, II, p.63.
Browne, CJ, Coins of India. Calcutta, London.1922.p.60.
Elliot, W., Coins of southern India. New Delhi, 1975.p.85.
Gopalachari, S.T.S., Kakatiya coins, JAHRS.VI, p.142-44, 1932.
Gupta, C.S.A. Coin of Gajapati king Pratapa Rudra Deva, JAINS, I, 1,p.51-53, 1980.
Jackson, RP, Dominions, emblems and coins of south Indian dynasties. British numismatic journal.1912. p.314.
Ramayya, S., A real Kakatiya coin. JNSI. XXI.p.181.,1959
Rammohan, R., The Kakatiya coinage. JNSI.LV.136-139, 1993.
Rapson, E.J., A catalogue of the Indian coins in the British Museum. London, 1908.p.38.
Sastry, P.V.P., Kakatiya coins and measures. Hyderabad Museum series no.14.Published by Govt. of A.P, Hyderabad.p.9, 1975.
Sastry, P.V.P. The Kakatiyas. Govt. Of AP, Hyderabad, 1978.
Siddiqui, A.H., Coins of Pratapa Rudra Deva, N.D.II, I., p.36-37, 1978.
Sircar, D.C., Alleged copper coins of Rashtrakuta Kakka II.JNSI. XXI, II, p.137, 1959.
Sircar, D.C. Coins of Kakatiya Prataparudra II. In: Studies in Indian coins, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, p.238-243, 1968
Subramanyam, B. & Naidu, P.J. Gold coins of the Kakatiyas. Museum series No.21, Andhra Pradesh Government museum, Hyderabad, p.1-11, 2001.
Venkataramanayya, N., The alleged coins of Pratapa Rudra Deva. JNSI. XXX.p.213, 1968.

References: Coins of Telugu-Chodas

Telugu Chodas ruled Nellore, Cuddapa districts and came into prominence in the 10-11Th centuries AD (973-1075). Their inscriptions have been found in Chenglepet, Nellore and Krishna districts. Many of the chiefs had the title Bujabala and Bujabalavira. The kings of this dynasty were Saktivarman I, Vimaladitya, Raja Raja Narendra, Saktivarman II, Rajendra, and Vijayaditya VII.Some Telugu Choda chiefs ruled from Kanduru and they had names like Ghokarna Choda, Bhimana Choda, Udaya Choda etc.

Ayyangar, S.R. Some Chola coins JAHRS. I, p.190-192, 19
Ganesh, K. and Girijapathy, M. Some interesting coins of Cholas and Telugu Chodas, SSIC.XII, p.25-28, 2002.
Krishna, M.H., Dekhan numismatics-a thesis.p.144.

Sastri, H.K., Govt. of Madras, Kodur treasure trove, G.O. no.1106, p.1-8, 1917.

References: Coins of Reddy kings

After the defeat of Kakatiyas in 1323 AD, Muslims were driven out from Warangal by Musunuri Prolaya, Kapaya and Prolaya Vema Reddi. The Reddi kings ruled from Addanki, Korukonda, Kondavidu, Raja Mahendravaram and Kandukur etc. The Kondavidu Reddi kings were 1.Prolaya Vema (1325-1353), 2.Anavota (1354-1364), Anavema (1364-1386), Kumaragiri (1386-1404), Peda Komati Vema (1402-1420) and 6.Racha Vema Reddi (1420-1424). Kataya Vema Reddi, Anapota Reddi, Veerabadra Reddi, Vemareddi Dodda Reddi and Anna Reddi ruled from Rajamahendravaram. Korukonda rulers were Kesava Reddi, Ganapati nayaka, Kunapa nayudu, Mummandrindudu, Kunapanayaka and Mummadi ruled from Korukonda. Girireddi, Annareddi, and Mallareddi III ruled from Kandukur. These kings were Shaivites and their coins had couchant Bull and sword and chakra symbols. There was a branch of Reddi kings who ruled from Chundi according to inscriptional evidence.

1. Siddique, A.H. Coins of Kondavidu Reddi kings. In: History of medieval Deccan, Eds.H.K.Sherwani & P.M.Joshi, p.449-450, 1974.

There were other minor dynasties like Musunuri chieftains of Warangal, and other kingdoms like Rachakonda and Devarakonda, Koppula and Korulkonda etc. Rachakonda Family of Velama chiefs: EraDacha,Singana, Anavota,KumaraSinghabupalaII,ImmadiAnavota, Madhava Rau and Mummadi Singha

References: Vijayanagara coins

Vijayanagara kings ruled from 1336 AD till 1649 AD and their rulers belonged to four dynasties namely Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu. Saluva dynasty coins are not known and the reason may be that they ruled for only 20 years. These rulers issued gold, silver and copper coins. The Vijayanagar rulers used Nagari, Kannada and Telugu scripts for their coin legends. Sangama rulers were Harihara I (1336-1357AD), Bukka I (1357-1377AD), Haihara II (1377-1404 AD), Virupaksha I (1404-1405AD), Bukka II (1405-1406), Devaraya I (1406-1422AD), Ramachandraraya (1422AD), Vira Vijaya (1422-1426AD), Devaraya II (1426-1446), Vijayaraya II (1446-1447), Mallikarjuna (1447-1465AD), Vurupaksha II (1465-1485AD), and Pandharaya (1485). Saluva kings were Saluva Narasimha (1486-1492AD), Immadi or Narasimha II (1493-1505AD). Tuluva rulers were Vira Narasimha (1505-1509AD), Krishna Deva raya (1509-1529AD), Achyutaraya (1530-1542AD), Sadasivaraya (1542-1576AD). Aravidu kings were: Tirumala I (1570-1571AD), Sriranga I (1572-1585AD), Venkatapatiraya II (1586-1614AD), who was followed by many titular kings like Sriranga II, Venkatapati Devaraya II and Sriranga III etc.

The currency of Vijayanagara kings comprised of gold, silver and copper coins known respectively as varaha, tara and hana. Gold and copper coins of Vijayanagar kings are found in abundance while their silver coins are rare.

Ayyangar, R.S.R., Varahas of Krishnadeva raya of Vijayanagar, POC, 1928,p.468.
Aiyyangar, R.S.R., Varahas of Srikrishna Raya of Vijayanagar, JIH, VIII, p.353.
Babu, R.J. Three enigmatic gold coins of Harihara I., SSIC.XI.p.101-102, 2001.
Bhandare, S.U., Pethe, SS, New types of silver coins of Vijayanagar empire. Studies in south Indian coins, VI.77-92, 1996.
Biddulph, C.H. Copper coin of Devaraya II, JNSI.XX, 82,1958.
Biddulph, C.H. Coin of Devaraya II, JNSI.XXII, p.202, 1960.
Desikachari, T. the coins of Vijainagar.In: South Indian coins, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, p.75-79, 1984.
Dhopate, S.G. More silver coins of Vijayanagar, N.D., XX.p.83-90, 1996.
Dhopate, S.G. Silver coins of Vijayanagar empire, SSIC.XII.p.7-12, 2002.
Dhopate, S.G. Some coins assignable to Vijayanagara rulers, SSIC.XII.p.55-58, 2002.
Ganesh, K, Bull type coins of Tirumalaraya. SSIC, V., 117-118,1995.
Ganesh, K. and Girijapathy.Quarter varahas of Devaraya II, JNSI.LVII, p.46, 1995.
Ganesh, K., Girijapathy, M., Some new coins of Vijaynagar empire. SSIC VIII.102-104, 1998.
Gopal, R., Ganesa type of Vijaynagar gold coin. SSIC.VI.99-102, 1996.
Gopal, R. Five unknown gold panams of Harihara I, SSIC.XI.p.97-100, 2001
Havalaiah, N. Sarasvathi type coin of Krishnadevaraya, SSIC.XII.p.67-68, 2002.
Heras, H., Coins of emperor Mallikarjuna of Vijayanagar, NS, XLIV, p.312, 1931-33.
Heras, H., A new Pratapa of Krishna Deva Raya of Vijayanagar, JIH.VII, p.34.
Hultzsch, E., The coins of the kings of Vijayanagar, IA.XX, p.301-309, 1891.
Karunakaran, MT, Two new coins of Sri Rang Raya I of Vijaynagar. SSIC. VI.95-98, 1996.
Karunakaran, MT, Two new elephant type coins of Devaraya II. SSIC. VII.85-86, 1997.
Kaus, H. A unique commemorative coin of Venkatapati Devaraya II of Vijayanagar, N.Cir. LXV, p.159, 1957.
Krishna, M.H., Some Vijayanagara coins. AMAD, p.68, 1930.
Krishna, M.H., Some Vijayanagar coins (contd). AMAD, p.69, 1931.
Krishnappa, MV, Balakrishna type copper coins of Krishnadevaraya. SSIC, VII.89-90, 1997.
Krishnappa, M.V. A new copper coin of Achutaraya, SSIC.XII.p.48-51, 2002.
Kumar, G.A. A counterfeit gold coin of Devaraya II, SSIC.XII, p.65-66, 2002.
Mahadevaiah, M.P. An interesting copper coin of Devaraya I, SSIC.XI.p.108-110, 2001.
Mirashi, V.V. A copper coin of Krishnaraya. JNSI, XVII, p.99, 1955.
Mitchiner, M. Some early Vijayanagar silver taras belonging to three geographically separate series, N.D., XXI, -XXII, p.37-56, 1997-1998.
Murthy, M.S.K., Two new coin types of Vijayanagar emperor Sadasivaraya. SSIC. III.119-122, 1993.
Narasimha Murthy, A.V., Coins and currency system in Vijayanagar empire. The numismatic notes and monographs No.21, The numismatic society of India, Varanasi, 1991.
Narasimha Murthy, A.V. Four Sarasvati type copper coins of Vijayanagara, SSIC.XII.p.59-64, 2002.
Narasimha Murthy, A.V., Jain, P.K., An enigmatic coin of Achyutharaya. JNSI.LVIII, 52-53,1996.
Narasimha Murthy, A.V. and Jain, P.K. Some more silver coins of Vijayanagara, SSIC.IX.84-88, 1999.
Narasimha Murthy, A.V. and Murthy, P.K.K. Three unpublished Vijayanagara coins, SSIC, XI.p.103-107, 2001.
Oruganti, H. A portrait coin of Vijayanagar kings Sriranga I. SSIC. IV.139-140.1994.
Oruganti, H. Three special coin types of Vijaynagara kings. SSIC. V., 11-116,1995.
.Oruganti, H. A unique Vijayanagara coin, JNSI.LV.84-85, 1993
Oruganti, H. Yet another coin of Saluva Timma. SSIC. VI.93-94, 1996.
Oruganti, H. An unknown camel type coin of Devaraya II. SSIC. VIII.105-107, 1998.
Oruganti, H. A Vijayanagara coin with Vyaghrapada rishi motif, SSIC.IXX, p.92-95, 1999.
Oruganti, H. Some more Vijayanagara coins with sculptural parallels, SSIC.X, p.52-61, 2000.
Oruganti, H. King Mallikarjuna’s coin with goddess Pampa Devi figure, SSIC.XI, p.111-113, 2001.
Oruganti, H. The metrology of Vijayanagar currency, SSIC.XII.69-82, 2002.
Pai, N.M. An unknown varaha of Ramchandraraya of Vijayanagar, SSIC.X, p.50-51, 2000.
Panchmukhi, RS, The coinage of the Vijayanagar dynasties, VSCV. p.101, 1936.
Panchmukhi, RS, Some Vijayanagar copper coins, JNSI.V, p.49.
Patel, R. Representation of weapons on Vijayanagara coins. J.N.S.I., XLVI. P.111-2, 1984.
Patel, T.D., Representation of gods on the Vijayanagara coins. J.N.S.I., XLVI. p.113-117, 1984.
Poonacha, K.P., Venkatesan, P., A note on the Vijayanagar gold coins from Channasandra. SSIC. IV.133-138.1994.
Prabhu, M. and Pai, M.N. A rare varaha of Harihara II of Vijayanagara, SSIC.IXX, p.89-91, 1999.
Radhakrishnan, P.V., Vijayanagar coins from upper Tamilnadu. IIRNS newsline, 11,p.6, 1996.
Radhakrishna, P.V. Did Krishnadevaraya issue siva-parvati type gold coins, N.D., XX.p.91-96, 1996.
Ramakantham, S. Some gold coins of Vijayanagar dynasty, The A.P.J.of Archaeology, I, 1979.
Rangachari, TM, Desikachari, T., Some inedited coins of the kings of Vijayanagar, IA.XXIII.p.24.
Ramesan, N., A Catalogue of the Vijayanagara coins in the Andhra Pradesh Government Museum. Archaeological series No.4.The Govt. A.P.1979.
Rao, B.V. A silver coin of Tirumalaraya-I of Vijayanagara, SSIC.IXX, p.96-98, 1999.
Reddy, V.V.S., A gold coin of Sadasivaraya, JNSI.XXXXII, p.128, 1946.
Reddy, DR, Reddy, P.S., Coins of Aravidu dynasty of Vijayanagar. N.D.IX.p.41-45, 1985. 60.Sankara Narayana, N., Catalogue of Vijayanagara coins in the Madras Government Museum, 1977.
Sankaranarayan, N., Vijayanagar coins from Tamilnadu.N.D.III.59-60, 1979. 62.Sankaranarayana, N., Recent treasure trove find of Vijayanagara coins from Kuttukurichi. JNSI.XLIII. Part I., p.77-79, 1981.
Satyamurthy, T. A terracotta seal of Krishnadevaraya from excavation at Bekal in Kerala, SSIC.XI.p.114-116, 2001.
Seetharaman, A., A rare copper coin of Harihara I. SSIC. VII.87-88, 1997.
Siddiqui, A.H., An unpublished coin of Vijayanagar King Harihara II. N.D.II, p.75-78, 1978.
Siddiqui, A.H., A unique copper coin of Vijayanagara king Harihara II, JNSI.XL, p.132, 1978.
Sivaramamurti, C. the Balakrishna coin of Krishna Raya. JOR.XII, 221,
Sreenivasa Rao, BV Coins of the later rulers of the Sangam dynasty of Vijayanagar empire. JAHRS, XXXI.p.3, 1965-66.
Swaminathan, K.D. A coppper coin of Devaraya II, JNSI.XIX, p.32, 1957.

Swaminathan, K.D. A note on a copper coin of Devaraya II, JNSI. XXII, p.277, 1960.

References: Bahmani coins

Bahmani rule came into being on the 3^rd of August 1347 AD. when Nasiruddin Ismail Shah, led the revolt against the Delhi Sultanate. He stepped down in favor of Zafar Khan who then assumed the title of Alauddin Bahman Shah. The Bahmani dynasty ended sometime in 1538 AD when the last titular ruler, Kalimullah died. There were eighteen rulers constituting the Bahmani dynasty, the first eight of whom ruled from Gulbarga (Ahsanabad) and the other from Bidar (Muhammadabad) as their capital. Their years of rule given: 1.Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (1347-1358 AD; 748-759 AH) 2.Muhammad Shah I (1358-1375 AD; 759-776AH), 3.Alauddin Mujahid Shah (1375-1378AD; 776-779AH), 4.Dawud Shah I (1378-1378AD; 779-780AH), 5.Muhammad Shah II (1378-1397AD; 780-799AH), 6.Ghiathuddin Tahmatan Shah (1397-1397AD; 799AH), 7.Shamsuddin Dawud Shah II (1397-1397Ad; 799AH), 8.Tajuddin Firoz Shah (1397-1422AD; 800-825AH), 9.Shihabuddin Ahmad Shah I (1422-1436AD; 825-839AH), 10.Alauddin Ahmad Shah II (1436-1458AD;839-862AH),11.Alauddin Humayun Shah(1458-1461AD;862-866AH),12.Nizamuddin Ahmad Shah III(1461-1463AD;866-867AH),13.Shamsuddin Muhammad Shah III(1463-1482AD;867-887AH),14.Shihabuddin Mahmud Shah(1482-1518AD;887-924AH),15.Ahmad Shah IV(1518-1520AD;924-926AH),16.Alauddin Shah(1520-1523AD;926-928AH),17.Walliyullah Shah(1523-1526AD;928-930AH),18.Kalimullah Shah (1526-1538AD;930-942AH).It may be worth noting that last rulers coins were issued long after he was known to have died.

The first ever description of Bahmani coins is found in Edward Thomas’s “The chronicles of the Pathan kings of Delhi” published in 1847 and later in 1871.The Catalogue of coins of the Bahmanis in the Hyderabad museum by Khan lists copper, silver and gold coins of this dynasty. We have updated all known types of copper and silver coins of Bahmani’s in our two books and a few more have been added which are listed in the references given below.

The coins have helped in fixing the duration of the reigns of these rulers and also in knowing the titles assumed by them. Further it is undeniable that coins have been helpful to the study of language, calligraphy and the religious practices of the concerned period. Furthermore, coins have been useful in obtaining the genealogy and order of succession of the Bahmani rulers with a greater degree of accuracy than other types of historical records or evidence. For instance, Tarikhi Feristha wrongly concluded that the coins of Muhammad Shah I contained the names of the four caliphs on the obverse. Tarikh-E-Ferishta written by Mohd. Qasim surnamed Ferishta is a comprehensive historical document of the medieval Deccan. Briggs edited the Persian text and Fida Ali did its Urdu translation. Similarly, other errors in it are brought out by the numismatists. Coins of two of the rulers namely Dawud Shah I and Alauddin Shah have not yet been found and many new coin varieties as well as coins of those rulers may unearthed in future.

Ferishta and Tazkaratul muluk were the historical records of the Bahmani period but the information provided by the coins was accurate as compared to the former sources. For ex. Ferishta named the eighth king of this dynasty, as Muhammad Shah while the correct name, which was also given by coins, was Muhammad Shah. The mint names of Gulbarga and Bidar were Ahsanabad and Muhamadabad but Ferishta named them as Hasanabad and Ahmadabad respectively. The year of death of Bahman Shah was 760AH and both Feristha and Tazkaratul muluk stated them as 759 and 761 AH respectively. The coins of the 760 AH of Bahman Shah as well as of his successor are available. Hence the study of coins is very useful for historical documentation.

Ahmad, K.M. Rare and important coins of Bahmani kings. OC., VII, 737, 1933.
Ahmad, K.M., Some rare coins in the state museum, Hyderabad-Dn. (Baihmani & Mughal). Numismatic series.No.5.Hyderabad museum, 1950
Ahmad, N. On a copper coin of Firoz Shah Bahmani. JNSI.XXVI, p.275. 1964.
Ahamad, R, A published Bahaman silver coin of Muhammad Shah I. IIRNS. Newsline.23, p.10.1999.
Ahamad, R., Another silver coin of Bahmani sultan Muhammad Shah I dated AH 778.IIRNS Newsline, 31,p.6, 2001.
Ali, MA, A copper coin of Ahmad Shah I of Bahmani, JNSI. XXVII, p.109.1965.
Ali, MA, A copper coin of Nasiruddin Abul Fath Ismail Shah. JNSI. XXVIII.p.219,1966.
Ali, MA, Two new Bahaman coins. JNSI.XXIX, part. I., p.62, 1967.
Ali, MA, A new coin type of Ahmad Shah I Bahmani. JNSI, XXX, p.225, 1968,
Allan, J., Indian coins acquired by British museum, London, Num.Chr.p.11-16, 1924.
Bright, R.K. Copper coin of the Bahmani Shahs of Gulbarga, NI. VII, 1, p.5, 1973.
Bright, R.K. Coppper coins of the Bahmani Shahs of Gulbarga, NI, 3,p.61, 1973.
Bright, R.K. Gold and silver coins of the Bahmani Shah of Gulbarga, NI, 7,191,1973.
Brown, C., On two finds of the Bahmani coins. JASB. Numismatic Supplement.XXII, p.196, 1914.
Burn, R., Bahmani kings (a report on 869 copper coins found in Betul district CP). JASB.Num.Supp.VII.p.53, 1907.
Codrington, O., On copper coins of the Bahmani dynasty. Journal of the Bombay branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, XVI.99-104, 1883.
Codrington, O., Coins of the Bahmani dynasty.Num.Chr.XVIII, p.259-273, 1898.
Delmerick, J.G., List of rare Muhammadan coins no., Coins of kings of Delhi, Bengal, Malwa, Kulbargha and Kashmir, Journal of the Asiatic society of Bengal, 1876.
Gibbs, J., Gold and silver coins of Bahmani dynasty. Numismatic chronicle, p.91-115, 1881.
Gupta, PL, Coinage of the Bahmanis. In: History of medieval Deccan. Eds.H.K.Sherwani, & P.M.Joshi.p.432-439, 1974.
Gupta, PL A gold coin of Bahmani Muhammad Shah II. Num.Dig, I, p.71, 1977.
Haig, W., Note on a find of copper coins in the Wren district of Berar. JASB.Num.supp.I.P.63-69.1902.
Hunnargikar, JR, Smallest copper coin of the Bahamans, IIRNS newsmen, 17,p.6, 1998.
Hussain, R., Record of small size silver coin of Ghyasuddin Tahmatan Shah Bahmani 1397 AD.JNSI.XLVI.p.56, 1984.
Ismail, M. NS, XXXIX, (264) p.47, 1925.
Kaus, H., An unpublished copper coin of Shamsuddin Muhammad Shah of Bahmani, JNSI.VII, and P.61.1945.
Kaus, H. Unrecorded legends on the coins of Kalimullah Shah of Bahmani, JNSI.VII, P.62, 1945.
Kaus, H. An unpublished coin of Mahmud Shah of Bahmani, JNSI, XIX. p.79, 1957.
Kaus, H. An undeciphered legend on a coin of Humayun Shah Bahmani. N.Cir.LXIX, 12,167.
Khan, A.W., Bahmini coins in Andhra Pradesh Govt. museum, Hyderabad, 1963.
Lane-poole, S., The coins of the Muhammadan states of India in the British museum. London.p.146-155, 1885.
Martin, M.H. Bahmani metrology and currency reform of the 1420’s.JAINS.Vol.IV.p.35-48, 1982.
Moin, D., Verma, R.L., Small denomination silver coin of Muhammad Shah II Bahmani, IIRNS newline, 18,p.7, 1998.
Rao, D., A new legend on the copper coin of Muhammad III Bahaman JNSI, XX. Part II, p.228, and 1958.
Rao, D., A legend on the copper coin of Sultan Kalimullah Bahmani. XXI, p.78, 1959.
Rao, D. On some new and rare Bahmani coins, JNSI.XXII, p.217, 1960.
Rao, D., A rare coin types Muhammad Shah Bahmani, N.D.,I.,II, p.32.1977.
Reddy, DR, Reddy, P.S., Copper coins of the Bahmanis. Numismatic society of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, 1983.
Reddy, DR, Reddy, P.S., Silver coins of the Bahmanis, Numismatic society of Hyderabad.Hyderabad, 1983.
Reddy, R.J.P., A silver coin of Alauddin Bahman Shah, JNSI. XLVI. P.55.1984.
Rodgers.C.J.The catalogue of coins of the Indian museum, Calcutta, 18 93.
Saboor, MA Historical facts gleaned from the coins of the Bahamani Dynasty.NS, XXXIX, and (261) p.361925.
Sherwani, H.K., Discovery of Fathabad mint, JNSI.VIII, p.177, 1946.
Sherwani,H.K. Bahmani coinage as a source of Deccan history. In: D.V.Potdar commemoration volume, p.204-218.
Siddiqui, A.H., Some copper coins of the later Bahman kings. JNSI. XX, Part II, p.226, 1958.
Siddiqui, A.H., Some dateless copper coins of the Bahmani kings. JNSI. XVI.p.271, 1964.
Siddiqui, A.H., A note on some legends of the Bahmani coins. JNSI. XVI.Part.II.p.171, 1964.
Siddiqui, A.H., A note on copper coins of Firoz Shah Bahmani, JNSI. XXVIII, Part.II.p.79, 1966.
Siddiqui, A.H., A new type of copper coin of Mahmud Shah Bahmani, JNSI. XXVIII.p.220, 1966.
Siddiqui, A.H., A new type copper coin of Waliullah Bahmani, JNSI. XXXVII, p.163, 1975.
Siddiqui, A.H., On a new type of copper coin of Ahmad Shah Bahmani. JNSI, XXXVII, p.165, 1975.
Siddiqui, A.H., A new coin varieties of Mahmud Shah Bahmani, Num.Dig.III, Part, I., p.22-25.1979.
Siddiqui, A.H., Some Bahmani copper coins.Num.Dig. VI.part.II, p.71, 1982.
Siddiqui, A.H., A new type of copper coin of Ismail Shah.Num.Dig. XV.p.104-7, 1991.
Siddiqui, A.H. and Rao, T.D.A new type of gold coin of Feroz Shah Bahmani, N.D., XXI-XXII, p.67-70, 1997-1998.
Singhal, C.R.A rare muhr of Nizam shah Bahmani, JNSI, I, p.39, 1 939.
Singhal, C.R.A. rare Bahmani rupee, JNSI.II, p.131, 1940.
Speight, EE, The coins of the Bahmani kings of Deccan, Ilamic culture. 268-307,1935.
Syedain, K.G., Ladhked hoard of Bahaman copper coins from Maharashtra. Studies in south Indian coins. VII.95-104, 1997.
Tarapore, P.S. A rare Bahmani rupee, NS, XLIII, (305), p.55, 1930.
Tarapore, P.S., A rare coin of the Ghyasuddin Tahmatan Shah, JNSI.IV, P.67, 1942.
Tarapore, P.S., Some Bahmani, Mughal and Asaf Jahi coin. JNSI. V,P.79,1943.
Tarapore, P.S., The identification of Bahmani mint Fathabad. JNSI. VII, P.46, 1945.
Tarapore, P.S. Some rare coins in my cabinet. NS.XLIV. (313), p.23, 1931-33.
Tarapore, P.S. Some rare coins in my cabinet. JNSI, II, p.127, 1940.
Tarapore, P.S. Some Bahmani, Mughal and Asaf Jahi coins. JNSI.V, pp.79, 1943.
Tarapore, P.S. Some rare Bahmani and Mughal coins, JNSI.Xi, p.154, 1950.
Tarapore. Is the name of Tahmatan or Bahman Shah found on the coins of Ghiyasuddin Shah of Bahmani Dynasty? J.N.S.I., XVI, p.256, 1954.
Thanawala, F.J., Some rare silver and copper coins of the Bahmani kings of Gulbarga or Ahsanabad. JASB.NS.XI, (62), p.309-315, 1909.
Thomas, E., The chronicles of the Pathan kings of Delhi. Munshiram Manoherlal Oriental Publishers, p.345-346, 1967(originally published in 1847 & 1871).
Whittell, H.M., The coins of the Bahmani kings of Kulbarga.NS. XIX. (234), P.22-39, 1923.
Whittell, H.M. The reign of Alauddin Bahman Shah.NS. XXXII. (199), p.475, 1918.
Wright, H.N., Catalogue of coins in the Indian museum Calcutta.p.196-205, 1907.

References: Qutub Shahi coins

Qutub Shahi kings ruled from 1518 AD till 1687 AD (1098 AH) and only copper coins of these rulers are known. There were eight rulers of this dynasty namely Sultan Quli Qutubul-Mulk (1518-1543 AD), Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah (1543-1550AD), Sultan Quli Qutb Shah (1550-1550AD), Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah (1550-1580AD), Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (1580-1612Ad), Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah (1612-1626AD), Abdullah Qutb Shah (1626-1672AD) and Abul Hasan Tana Shah (1672-1687 AD) who died in 1699 AD in Daulatabad prison. First king namely Quli Qutub Shah did not issue any coins in his name. Qutub Shahis issued coins from Golconda in the beginning and from 1012 AH onwards from Hyderabad.

1. Ahmad, K.M.Qutb Shahi coins, Gulam Yazdani commemoration volume, Hyderabad, 102-105,1966.

2. Biddulph, C.H. A rare copper coin of the Qutb Shahi dynasty. JNSI. XXIV, 145,1962.

3. Burn, R. the Qutb-Shahi dynasty of Golconda. NS, XI, (64), p.317, 1908.

Burn, R. The Qutb-Shahis of Haiderabad or Golconda, JASB.p.317-318, 1909.
Gupta,P.L.Qutb Shahi coins. In: History of medieval Deccan.Eds, H.K.Sherwani & P.M.Joshi, p.444-446, 1974.

6. Joshi, P.M. Coins current in the kingdom of Golconda, JNSI.V, p.85, 1943

7. Kaus, H. The coins of the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda. N.C. LXIII, p.209, 1955.

Kaus, H. Coins of Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda.N.Cir. LXVIII, p.111, 182,1960.

9. Khan, A.W., Qutub Shahi coins in Andhra Pradesh Govt.museum, Hyderabad, 1961.

Mitchiner, M., Balsekar, DP, An interesting overstruck coin of Qutub Shahis. IIRNS newsline, 17,p.7, 1998.
Rao, D., A unique copper coin of Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah of Golconda. JNSI. XX.p.229, 1958.
Rao.D. A rare copper coin of Qutub Shahi dynasty, JNSI. XXII. P.281, 1960.
Reddy, V.V.S. A copper coin of Golconda sultan Abdullah Qutub Shah, JNSI, XLVII.p.63, 1985.
Siddiqui, A.H., A new type copper coin of Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah, JNSI.XXVI, p.258, 1964.

References: Coins of Mughals & Delhi sultans

Mughals ruled Deccan between the fall of Qutb Shahi’s in 1687 AD and the beginning of Asaf Jahi’s 1721 AD.

1. Bhandare, S.Mughal- pseudo-Mughal coinage-some general charecteristics, ONS newsletter No.161 supl, 1999.

Bhandare, S.Mughal-Numismatic vestiges of Shah Jahan’s campaigns in the Deccan, ONS newsletter No.162, 2000.
Brennig, J.J. The Golconda coinage of Shah Jahan and Aurangajeb: A Mughal tributory coinage, AHRS, p.53-64, 1978.
Goron, S.Machhlipatan- mohur of Aurangazeb, Mughal, ONS newsletter No.157, 1998.
Goron, S.Mughal-Shah Alam I, mohur of Elichpur, ONS newsletter No.157, 1998.
Goron, S. Aurangazeb-Mughal, mohur of Machhlipatan, ONS newsletter No.157, 1998.
Groenendijk, H.A. An eighth and sixteenth rupee of Farruksiyar struck at Masulipatnam. ONS newsletter No.109, p.4, 1987.
Gupta, PL Coins of Delhi Sultans current in the Deccan. In: History of medieval Deccan, Eds, H.K.Sherwani & P.M.Joshi, p.428-432, 1974.
Hodivala, S.H. The Gulkanda rupees of Shahjahan, JASB.XII, p.136-138, 1916.
Kaus, H. The title”Hazrat” of mint Sultanpur (Warangal)
Khan, M.F.A. and Siddiqui, A.H. Mughal gold pagodas and panams in the state museum of Hyderabad, SSIC.IX, p.103-111, 1999.
Kulkarni, P.P. A list of Mughal mint towns. Nidhi, XI.p.3-4, 1991.
Senior,R.Baramati- a rupee of Farrukhsiyar, Mughal, ONS news letter No.135,1993.
Timmermann, F. Machilipatan- a sixteenth rupee of Muhammad Shah, Mughal, ONS newsletter 94-95,1985.
Wiggins, K. Qandahar, Deccan-rupees of Shah Jahan I, Mughal, ONS newsletter No.76, 1982.

References: Asaf Jahi coins

Asaf Jahi rule started in 1724 AD (1133 AH) and ended in 1948 AD. First two rulers namely Nizamulmulk Asaf Jah I (1724-1748 AD) and Nizam Ali Khan Asaf Jah II (1762-1803 AD) did not issue any coins in their names. The coins of Mughal emperor with mint names of places in their territory belonged to them. Asaf Jah I issued coins in the name of Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah from the following mints which are already in existence. It may be worth recalling that Mughals issued coins from hundreds of mints around the country.1) Hyderabad, Farkhunda Bunyad, 2) Aurangabad, Khujista Bunyad, 3)Darus Surur, Burhanpur, 4)Zafarabad,Bidar, 5)ImtiazGarh,Adoni, 6)Firoznagar,Raichur, 7)Shorapur,Dist.Gulbarga, 8)Sholapur, 9)Mohiabad,Poona, 10)Arcot, 11)Masulipatnam,12)Chinapatnam,Madras,13)Koilkonda,Dist.Mahboobnagar.

During Asaf Jah II period the number of mints were reduced. Next three rulers namely Sikandarjah-Asaf Jah III (1803-1829 AD), Nasiruddaulah-Asaf Jah IV (1829-1857 AD) and Afzauddaulah-Asaf JahV (1857-1869 AD) issued coins in the names of Mughal rulers with the addition of their initials in the coins. After 1857 AD (1275AH) Afzaluddaulah issued coins with following legend on the obverse: 92 Asafjah Nizamulmulk Bahadur and the year and the reverse had the words: Julus maimanus manus Hyderabad Farkhanda Bunyad.92 number which figures prominently on all Asafjahi coins from then on was intriguing.92 signified the Prophet Muhammad. In Hebrew and Arabic the alphabets are given numbers by abjad system and Muhammad in Arabic is MHMD: 40+8+40+4=92.The coins which were made by hand were called ‘Chalni' and machine made coins known as ‘charki’ were introduced by sixth Nizam namely Mir Mahboob Ali Khan–Asaf Jah VI (1869-1911AD) in 1301 AH (1883 AD). The coins with the ‘charminar' symbol were struck in 1319 AH (1901AD). The last ruler of this dynasty Mir Osman Ali Khan-Asaf Jah VII (1911-1948 AD) died in 1967 AD. Three other rulers of this dynasty namely Mir Ahmed Ali Khan (1748-1750 AD), Hidayath Mohiuddin Khan (1750-1751 AD) and Syed Mohammad Khan (1751-1762 AD) were not granted the title of Asaf Jah by the Mughal emperor and hence they not listed in the chronology of Asaf Jah kings.

Abbasi, MA, Hyderabad sicca, The institute of Indo-middle east cultural series, Hyderabad, 1964.
Ali, MA, The mint Machilipatnam, Bandar, JNSI, XXX, 158,1968.
Ali, M, A., Chalni coins of Hyderabad, Num.Dig.II, p.38, 1977.
Ali, MA. Copper coins of Bahiri rulers.Num.Dig.I, 73,1977.
Ali, M.A. The attribution of Bahiri coins, N.D.IV. P.68-69, 1980.
Armstead, H.C.H. Hyderabad currency. In: The Hyderabad Mint Manuel, 2nd Ed.p.1-13, 1944.
Bright, R.K. A tentative Hyderabad dates list. Occasional paper No.3, Reading Oriental Numismatic society, 2,1973.
Chenoy, B. Rare coins of Hyderabad state. Numismatist, LXXXIII, p.945.
Gyani, R.G. Coinage of Nizams of Hyderabad.NS, XLVI. (336), p.99, 1935-36.
Gupta, PL A date list of the gold coins of Hyderabad, ONS newsletter, IIL, p.2, 1977.
Holmes, T., The Hyderabad '92' mystery.ONS newsletter no.155, p.21, 1998.
Icewala, SR & Somaiya, R.T. Hyderabad full, half-ain rupees. WC, XII, No.5, 26,1975.
Kaus, H., Machine made coins of Hyderabad, JNSI.IX.1947.
Kaus.H.Dies of Asaf Jahi coins. Num.Circular.LXIV, p.211, 1956.
Kaus, H., One anna and half anna pieces of Asaf Jahi VI Nizam of Hyderabad, Num.Cir.LXV, p.199, 1957.
Kaus, H., A unique half anna of Asaf Jah V of Hyderabad, Num.Cir. LXV,p.247, 1957.
Kaus, H.A. coin –die of Asaf jah IV of Hyderabad. N.C. LXVII, p.185, 1959
Kaus, H., The Osmania sicca of Hyderabad, Num.cir.LXVI, 549,1957.
Kaus, H. The Osmania sicca of Hyderabad.N.Cir, LXXIX, 371,1971.
Kulkarni, P.P. Rupees of Sikandar Jah of Hyderabad, N.D., IX.p.102-103, 1985.
Kulkarni, P.P., Amaravati-An unnoticed mint of the Nizams of Hyderabad. ONS newsletter No.107, p.6, 1987.
Lahiri, A.N. Numismatography of Indian princely states (Late Medieval and modern), JNSI.XLIX.p.188-196, 1987.
Lingen, J., The introduction of machine-struck coinage in the state of Hyderabad, ONS newsletter No.153, p.13-19, 1997.
Martin, E.J. Some medals of Hyderabad. CM.VII, 3,45,1970.
Rao, D., Two notes on Asafjahi coinage, JNSI.XXII.p.250, 1963.
Siddiqui, A.H. Two unnoticed coin types of Hyderabad, N.D., V., p.65-67, 1981.
Siddiqui, A.H. Copper coins of Aurangzeb from Hyderabad mint, N.D.XVII.p.171-178, 1993.

References: East India company & British India coins

1. Ali, MA The mint Machilipatan Bandar, JNSI, XXX, p.162, 1968.

2. Bidie, G. The pagoda or varaha coins of southern India, JASB.LII, p.33-55, 1883.

Biddulph, C.H. An unusual Masulipatan falus. JNSI.XXV.p.117, 1963.
Biddulph, C.H. Copper coins of the East India Company of Chinapatam (Madras) mint issued in the name of Aurangajeb Alamgir. JNSI.XXVIII, p.223, 1966.
Biddulph, C.H. Rupees issued by the English and French East India Companies and the nawabs of Arcot in the 18^th&19^th centuries. JNSI.XXI, p.146, 1959.
Cribb,J.British India- a newly discovered pattern of George V and the development of cupro-nickel coinage in India, ONS newsletter No.144,1995.
Dale, L.J. The East India Company and its coinage, NZNJ.IV, p.81, 1948.
Gattani, S.M. When were scales lost? JNSI.XXV.p.256, 1963.
Ghosal, H.R. Currency situation in Bengal at the end of the 18^th century. JBRS.XXXIII, p.170, 1947.
Grogan, H.T. The Indo-European pagodas, N.Cir.p.10728-10731, 1908.
Gupta, PL A counter-marked rupee of Empress Victoria. JNSI, XX, p.231, 1958.
Gupta, PL Silver coins of Bombay in the name of William III and Mary, JNSI.XXI, p.174, 1959.
Gupta, PL An unknown rupee pattern of E.I.Co. Num.Dig, I, p.66, 1977.
Hatherly, NJ The coinage of East India Company issues ANJ.XVII, 78,1977.
Jackson, R. some copper coins issued by the East India Company and other European powers in southern India. BNJ.V, p.341, 1909.
Johnston, J.M.C. The coinage of the East India Company. NC, III, p.71.
Kotwal, CE A Bombay half-rupee of Charles II.NS, XXXV, (212), p.17
Kromas, J. Catalogue of British India rupees, SCM.XXXI.p.1603, 1966.
Lahiri, A.N. Indo-British coins since 1835.JNSI.XXIII, p.90, 1961.
Lahiri, A.N. Rupee coins since 1835.INC, II, p.125, 1961.
Lahiri, A.N. Numismatography of Indo-British coins. JNSI.XLIX.p.182-187, 1987.
Niyogi, R. Four new E.I.C. tokens, JNSI.XLVII, p.71-73, 1985.
Phatak, DM Indian coins minted during the reign of King Edward VII.JNSI.XXVII.p.120, 1965.
Pridmore, F. First silver coinage of the Madras mint 1688.N.Cir, LXIX, 9,184,1961.
Puddester, RP, Catalogue of British India passes, tickets, checks and tokens. ONS newsletter no.158,159,160,161,162,163 &167, 1998,1999,2000,2001.
Rajendran, N., History of coinage under East India Company, Studies in south Indian coins, VII.p.159-164, 1997.
Reddy, V.V.S. A gold pagoda of English East India Company, JNSI. , XLV.p.79, 1983.
Scholten, C. Coins of United East India Company, N.Cir.XLIV.p.123-126, 1936.
Smith, MA East India silvers coinage. N., VIII, p.39, 1895.
Stevens.P.J.E.The coins of the British in India. The silver fanam coinages of the Madras presidency 1689 to 1807.ONS newsletter No.134.p.11-16, 1992.
Thomas, E. The coinages of the East India Company, at Bombay, under the charters of Charles II with a note on the Indian exchanges of the period. IA.XI, p.313.
Thurston, E. Note on the history of East India Company coinage from 1753-1835.JASB.LXII, 52.
Upadhyaya, S.C. Copper coins in Bombay mint, 1669-1677,JNSI, XI, 39,1950.
Vijayaraghavan, KR The old star pagoda of Madras. JNSI.XVII, p.109, 1955
Westcott, A. The copper coinage of Madras presidency. IA.XXVIII.p.270
Westcott, A. Copper coinage of Madras presidency. IA.XXIX, p.172.
Wiggins, K. East India Company-two unusual coins, ONS newsletter No.161, 1999.
Zambaur, E.V. The oldest British Murshidabad rupee. NS, XXI. (123), p.483.

References: Indo-French coins

1. Babu, R.J. Unknown French issues from Cuddalore, SSIC.XII, p.86-111, 2002.

Biddulph, C.H. Rupees issued by the English and French East India companies and the nawabs of Arcot in the 18^th and 19^th centuries. JNSI.XXI.p.146, 1959.
Desikachari, T. Indo-french coins. In: South Indian coins, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, p.88-112, 1984.
Mitchiner, M. French India-double rupees struck at Pondicherry, ONS newsletter No.74, 1981.
Sohoni, S.V. One aspect of Indo-French coinage, INC.I, p.72, 1960.

References: Indian Republic

1. Awashti, D. Landmarks in the development of Indian coinage in modern times, JAINS, Ii, 2,p.36, 1978-79

2. Dave, SS. The problem of parity between old and new small coinage of free India. JNSI.XXII, p.296, 1960.

Mukherjee, D. Coins of the republic of India, JNSI.XLVII, p.74-90, 1985.

References: Miscellaneous

1. Ali, M.A. Copper coins of Bahiri rulers, N.D., I, I, p.73-74, 1977

2. Ali, M.A. Chalni coins of Hyderabad, N.D., II.I, p.38-44, 1978.

3. Ali, M.A. Coins of Nawabs of Kalyani, N.D., IV.p.70-71, 1980.

Altekar, A.S., The relative prices of metals and coins in ancient India, JNSI, II, p.1, and 1940.
Altekar, A.S. Origin and early history of coinage in ancient India. JNSI.XV, pp.1, 1953.
Bhandare, S.U. Coinage of Ghorpade chiefs of Gooty, N.D., XVII.p.197-200, 1993
Bhandarkar, D.R. Dekkan of the Satavahana period, I.A., p.77-83, 1919.
Bharadwaj, HC Cleaning of copper coins. JNSI. XXVII,p.141, 1965.
Bharadwaj, HC Care and treatment of lead coins. JNSI. XXVIII, p.189, 1966.
Breeks, J.W., Notes on Indian currencies. MJLS.p.21-56, 1856.
Chandra, R.G. The symbol of hillocks. Seminar papers on the local coins of northern India.C.30 BC to 300 AD, Varanasi, 1968,p.193.
Chattopadhyaya, BD Coinage in early medieval Andhra: A note on chronology and distribution, Sri Mallampalli Somashekara Sarma commemoration volume, p.245-250, 1976.
Choudhary, K.K. Numismatic data from the inscriptions of Srikalahasti, SSIC.IV, p.117-122, 1994.
Cribb, J., Investigating the introduction of coinage in India. -A review of recent research. JNSI.XLV.80-101, 1983.
Dasgupta,K.K. Indian coins and coin symbols,presidential address, JNSI.,XLVI.p.1-18,1984.
Devi, V.Y., Coin terms in Andhra Desa inscriptions, JNSI. XXX. P.122.1968.
Dhavalikar, M.K., The beginning of coinage in India. World Archaeology, London, 1974,p.330.
Dikshit, M.G., four south India coins in the Leyden museum, JNSI. XXIV.p.45, 1962.
Editorial-The changing face-On south Indian numismatography, IIRNS newsline No, 19,1998.
Gopal, R., A new copper coin of Nandyal chief Krishnamaraya, Studies in south Indian coins. VII.p.91-94, 1997.
Gopalachari, K., Early history of Andhra country, Madras, 1976.
Gupta, PL A survey of Indian numismatography (south Indian coinage), JNSI, XXIII, p.74, 1961.
Hultzsch, E. South-Indian copper coins, I.A., p.321-327, 1892.
king, H., Coins and currency in ancient and modern times. MJLS.p.62, 1859.
Lingen,J.Arkat-Nawabs, a double rupee,ONS newsletter No.109, 1987.
Lingen, J. Jagannathpur: A mint town of the Dutch East India Company, N.D., XXIII-XXIV, p.97-118, 1999-2000.
Maheshwari, K.K. Some interesting coins from Andhra Pradesh, N.D., I, and I, p.1-13, 1977.
Mangalam, S.J., A rare south Indian coin from Madura, JNSI.L.p.40-41, 1988.
Mirashi, V.V., Coins of the king Sumahagramaka from Kondapur excavations. Numismatic series No.7.Hyderabad museum, 1950.
Mohandas, P.N., Three unique south Indian copper coins, JNSI.XXVI. P.64, 1964.
Moin, D. and Balsekar, D.P. A new copper coin of Murar Rao Ghorpade from Gooty mint, SSIC.X, p.80-82, 2000.
Mukherjee, B.N., The satamana.Num.Dig.XV.95-100, 1991.
Phatak, DM. On a modern coin of Pudukota state, JNSI.XXVIII, p.94, 1966.
Pieper, W.Ancient India-‘Three hills ‘ with a river-emblem of an ancient south Indian dynasty, ONS newsletter Nos 136 and 137,1993.
Pieper, W.Ancient India-a new ‘bow and arrow’ coin of the south Indian Cheras, ONS newsletter No.138,1993.
Pieper, W., About dating of India's first coin, ONS newsletter No.150, p.9-10, 1996.
Ramesan, N. History of coin collection in the Andhra Pradesh government museum. JNSI, XXIII, p.417, 1961.
Rangaraju, NS, Chemical cleaning and preservation of coins. Studies in south Indian coins. 125-132.
Rao, BS, All, U.S., Kumar, V., Air, MV, Study of gold and copper coins using non-destructive techniques. JNSI.LII, 116-123,1990.
Rao, M.P., Copper coinage of Telugu Nayakas of Madurai, SSIC.V. P.119-128, 1995.
Rao, K.P. and Cribb, J. Chinese coin found at Kottapatnam, Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh, N.D., XXIII-XXIV, p.133-138, 1999-2000.
Ramachandran, S. and Seetharaman, A., Coins of Velur Lingama Reddy, Studies in south Indian coins, IV.p.141-142, 1994.
Reddy, M.V.R., Modern coin of Pudukota state, JNSI.XXIX.p.92, 1967.
Reddy, N.K., Epigraphical references to mada and gadyana. Studies in south Indian coins. IV.p.123-132, 1994.
Sarma, I.K. An appraisal of recent discoveries of south Indian coins, SSIC. V.,p.9-27,1995
Sastry CAP, A few numismatic terms in Andhra epigraphs, SSIC. IV. P.113, 116,1994.
Sastry, P.V.P. Some aspects of south Indian numismatics, SSIC, III.p.9-18, 1993.
Shastri, A.M., Die-studies some observations. Indological studies. Ed.by D.Handa. Caxton publications.Delhi.1987.p.151-53.
Siddiqui, A.H. Local coins of Elichpur, N.D., I, II, p.45-49, 1977.
Siddiqui, A.H. and Khan, M.F.A., A new type copper coin of Kama Sri, SSSIC.VII.p.5-6, 1997.
Singhal, C.R., On some copper coins of Ellichpur mint, JNSI.XIII.p.95, 1951.
Singhal, C.R., A unique gold coin of the nawabs of Cuddapah, JNSI.XIV. P.113, 1952.
Sree Padma, B., Role of coins in the maritime trade of Andhra Pradesh. JNSI.LV.p.140-145.1993.
Temple, R.C. Beginnings of currency, I.A., p.29-45, 1900.
Thakur, U., Problem of forgery in Indian numismatics. JNSI.XLV.p.1-12, 1983.
Thomas, E., Ancient Indian weights, 1874.reprinted Varanasi, 1973.
Thomas, E., Ancient Indian weights, NC. IV, (NS) p.40, 114.
Thurston, E. On a recent discovery of Roman coins in southern India. NC.p.325, 1889.
Tiwari, J.N. A survey of Indian numismatography. (premuhammadan coinage) 1738-1950. (Numismatic notes and monographs, No.10) Varanasi, JNSI,XXIII, p.21-48,1961.
Tufnell, R.H.C., Hints to coin collectors in southern India. Part I. NJLS, 1886-87,p.33.
Tuffnell, R.H.C. Coins of southern India. Numismatist, X, p.135, 229, 293,357,1906.
Unnithan, NG, The coin collection in Kerala museum, JNSI, XXIII, p.471, 1961.
hitehead, R.B., The place of coins in Indian history, JPHS, II, p.5
Wiggins, K.Arcot-Nawabs, a mysterious mint, ONS newsletter No.65, 1980.

References: Seals & Sealings

Ali, MA Seal of Sati, A.P.J.Arch.III, p.71-72,
Dikshit, M.G., Cunningham collection of seals in British museum, JNSI. XXII, p.123, 1960.
Gupta, C. Sealing of Siva Sebaka, N.D., XXI-XXII, p.169-172, 1997-1998.
Raman, kV and Shanmugam, P. Pallava coin moulds from Kanchipuram excavations. Studies in south Indian coins, V., p.67-76, 1995.
Rao, B.S.I.H. Inscribed sealing from Chebrolu. Proc. of A.P.Hist.Cong. XI.p.p.45-48, 1987.
Reddy, DR & Reddy, P.S., Seals of the Satavahana era. In: Coins of the satraps of the Satavahana era, Hyderabad numismatic Society, Hyderabad, p.86-115, 1983.
Reddy, DR and Reddy, P.S. Punch marked and Satavahana coin moulds from, Dhulikatta and Kondapur excavations, Pictorial numismatics, Published by Numismatic Society of Hyderabad, 1985.
Sarma, I.K. A monastic seal from Dharanikota excavations, SSIC.IX.p.30-36, 1999.
Sastri, P.V.P., Seal of Nijagali, Num.Dig.VIII.p.1061984.
Siddiqui, A.H. Copper seal of Maharathi Asvaghosa, N.D.XI, p., 1987.
Tripathi, R.R., A Satavahana sealing from Kausambi. JNSI. XXXIV, p.70, 1972.

Abbreviation

AAHA: Ancient Andhra history and archaeology
ASR: Annual report of the archaeological society of India.
E.I.: Epigraphia Indica.
I.A. Indian antiquary
IIRNS newsletter: Indian institute of research in numismatic studies, Nasik.
INC. Indian numismatic chronicle, Patna.
JAHC: Journal of Andhra history and culture, Guntur
JAHRS: Journal of Andhra historical reasearch society Rajamundry
JAINS: The journal of Academy of Indian numismatics and Sigillography, Indore.
J.A.S.: Journal of Asiatic society, Calcutta.
J.A.S.B. Journal of Asiatic society of Bengal, Calcutta
J.B.B.R.A.S.: Journal of Bombay branch of royal Asiatic society.
JCBRAS: Journal of Ceylon branch of Asiatic society.
JNSI: Journal of the numismatic society of India.
J.R.A.S.: Journal Royal Asiatic society, London.
M.J.L.S.: Madras journal of letters and science, Madras.
N.Chr. Numismatic chronicle, London.
Num.cir: Numismatic circular, London.
N.D: Numismatic Digest.Nashik.
N.S., Numismatic supplement to the Journal of the Asiatic society of Bengal.
Nidhi: Indian coin society newsletter, Nagpur.
ONS newsletter: Oriental numismatic society newsletter, U.K.,
RADN: Annual reports of the archaeological department of H.E.H.Nizam dominion.
PAPHC:Proceedings of Andhra Pradesh historical congress.
S.S.I.C.: Studies in south Indian coins, Chennai.